Investigating the Relationship between Academic Persistence and Age, Gender, Ethnicity and Transfer Credits - Dissertation Example

? Investigating the Relationship between Academic Persistence and Age, Gender, Ethni and Transfer Credits Introduction The literature review examines the relationships that exist between academic persistence and age, gender, ethnicity and the transfer credits among adult learners who are joining the adult education programs on offer in different universities and colleges across the globe. The academic persistence of students will be studied by focusing on students who have successfully completed their undergraduate degrees in Christian ministry, business administration, elementary education or psychology. All the degree programs put into consideration are offered in an accelerated format and will lead the students to an accredited Bachelor of Arts degree. Adult Learner Academic Persistence According to previous reports, the retaining of adult learners in programs and institutions on adult education has become a great challenge. The rates of attrition and pressures of accountability within these institutions are also very high according to Jeffreys (2012). The previously carried out pieces of research show that most adults who withdraw from these learning programs do so after accomplishing their goals. They reportedly leave to join other programs that suit them more. According to Sanders, most of the adults dropping out of school return after their situations have been altered creating cycles between their dropping out and return which happens severally (2008). Previous literatures additionally indicate that the process of utilizing the class and lecture a major measurement of persistence undervalues other activities that would be effective in learning and which should be encouraged. This includes activities like distance learning and personal studies. In the year 2009, Comings, Parrella & Soricone, defined persistence as that period that adults remain in adult learning programs as they engage in personal studies as a result of being forced by circumstances leading to their withdraw from attending lectures or classes. The author additionally suggests that the adult students may return to their lectures when their situations in life allow them to. According to previously carried out surveys among adult students who were studying in America, those who had previously been involved in vocational training, self study and other forms of learning, had a greater likelihood of persisting academically than their counterparts who had not been involved in similar activities (Jones, 2008). These surveys additionally show that the adult students who had specific wants had greater probabilities of persisting than those adults who were in the learning institutions but had no specific wants. According to Sanders, if the academic persistence of adult students has to be improved, the learning institutions should avail additional learning alternatives like distance learning to the adult learners who are no able to attend their scheduled lectures (2008). Learner centered perspectives can greatly help in supporting the academic persistence and understanding among the adult learners by managing the forces that hinder or advance their learning activities (Millar, & So, 2008). According to previous literature, several factors are responsible for affecting the academic persistence among adult learners and range from the different institutions, situations, dispositions, and demographic factors and emotional and relational forces (Quigley, 2008). Problems that arise from the adult learner’s employment, finances, families and abuse from their classmates, transport and health can be classified as being situational. On the other hand, institutional barriers prevent adult learners from persisting academically and could include issues like the level or content of the course, their location or failure to meet the set admission guidelines (Ziegler & Durant, 2009). The attitudes, self-efficacies and resilience among the adult learners towards their learning may prevent them from excelling in their chosen academic fields (Jones, 2008). The adult learner’s demographic forces and emotional experiences may also affect their academic persistence. The demographic forces affecting their academic persistence may include factors like their age, gender and their different cultures. The emotional forces on the other hand include issues like the support, encouragement or care accorded to the adult students by their communities (Quigley, 2008). Previous literatures show that the academic persistence that may be found among the adult students is highly individualized since each of them is affected by different factors from his classmates. The roles that individual students play according to a study carried out by Jones encounter different kinds of support and hindrances (2008). According to Conrad, the most important period for an adult student comes three weeks after they have been admitted into a learning institution. He additionally claims that the activities aimed at retaining adult students should commence immediately their intake has ended because it will help in setting their pace during the remaining period (2008). Previous literatures indicate that the process of student retention have been carried out through assessments and other techniques used in learning. These techniques have not however been utilized for the purpose of determining the adult student placement and their efficiency in delivering instructions (Tinto, 2008). The adult in take process is an ongoing process despite the perception of some institutions that it is an event that takes place once. According to reports, it is a process that should aim at revisiting the adult learners’ goals, the barriers they encounter and other matters that may be affecting their academic persistence in the attainment of their academic goals (Jones, 2008). The utilization of persistent scales in measuring the attitude of an adult learner, their self-efficacy and attributions for success have been advocated as suitable strategies for retaining adult students in a learning institution. In order for institutions to determine their adult students self direction or learning disabilities, they can use screening devices (Millar & So, 2008). Previous literature suggests that the social relationships that adult learners experience in the learning institutions positively or negatively influence their academic persistence. The influential factors affecting them may include their families, friends, teachers, classmates and communal support or resistances (Jones, 2008). According to Chen, the persistence levels among adult women students who used English as their second language and were enrolled in nontraditional degree programs was high. Their high persistence was mainly attributed to their relations and emotional reciprocities since their care giving roles are supported by their learning activities (2010). The building of a psychological and a physically supportive environment for the adult students has been suggested as an efficient method of developing their personalities and social relationships. The accessibility, safety and communal issues affecting the adult learner’s academic persistence should be considered when adopting strategies for enhancing their persistence (Jones, 2008). Community building should include activities like promoting mentorship amongst peers, participatory programming, cooperative learning and the creation of support groups among friends. Making calls to the absent adult students, the scheduling of activities in flexible fashions, availing comfortable spaces and offering assistance to the elderly or the young children under the care of the adults may go a long way in ensuring that adult students persist in attaining their academic goals (Traub, 2009). According to previous literature, safety for the adult students is provided by ensuring that their environment is non-threatening in their disclosure of private information or their emotional developments (Walberg, 2008). The accessibility to educational facilities among adult learners should be ensured through the provision of flexible rules which would enable them to come back after quitting, accept the distance learning option and become friendly. This should be done while providing meaningful intakes and using humane method that is also formal in accessing them (Traub, 2009). According to Walberg, the engagement of adult students has been influenced by factors like their beliefs concerning the activities of teaching and learning (2008). Millar & So additionally suggest that the engagement of the adult students who attend different learning programs has a significant impact on their persistent levels (2008). This therefore implies that teachers should believe in the ability of adult students to learn and their participation bringing appropriate outcomes (Wlodkowski & Westover, 2009). The existing interactions between the teachers and the adult students indicate the presence of mutual respect and acceptance within the learning programs. Traub has given the example of cohorts as a type of assistance that may be provided to the adult students to enable them to persist academically (2009). Cohorts enable students to engage in the exchange of ideas, speak up on the problems they are encountering and their experiences thereby fostering a learning environment that is positive. They also help in the reducing feelings of isolation among the adult students while understanding their experiences in better ways (Wlodkowski & Westover, 2009). In the year 2008 the authors Miller and So claimed that cohorts enable groups in setting their goals, schedules and their habits when learning. They additionally claim that the cohorts can be used for encouraging discussion among adult students concerning the issues that are of interest to them. This could include their reasons for quitting school before, their ability to cope as students and the changes in their lives (Walberg, 2008). Cohorts also enable adult students to reorganize their lives by reducing their commitment levels as they learn new ways of managing their time more appropriately. According to Wolfe, adult students who have set specific goals to attain academically have a higher likelihood of persisting in their learning than their counterparts who do not have. The adult student’s inability of achieving his or her set academic goals may lead to his or her failure of completing education. Wolfe also suggests that this calls for a revision in their short term, long term and mandatory goals (2008). The adult student’s short term objectives include their admission to various learning programs, their adequate preparation for tests which require their rigorous though short participation in their learning activities. Their need for socializing and belonging to a different part of the society by the adult students may be described as being a part of their long term goals (Wlodkowski & Westover, 2009). The mandatory goals that adult students may have include their compliance to parole conditions or satisfying the requirements for receiving financial assistance (Jones, 2008). Previous literature indicates that adult learning programs should offer the required knowledge levels by the adult students and should be founded on the provision of services which will help the students to make appropriate progress (Comings, Parrella & Soricone, 2009). These programs should additionally provide the students with methods of measuring their progress while they increase their self-efficacy in the attainment of their set goals (Jones, 2008). In the year 2009 Comings, Parrella & Soricone suggested that self-efficacy’s four essentials included mastery experiences, social persuasion and vicarious experiences and the student’s emotional and psychological states (Miller & So, 2008). The adult student’s mastery experience will enable him to become academically successful and able to cope with their failures better while their vicarious experiences will help them in attaining their desired goals. The adult students emotional and psychological states can effectively help them in identifying their mental and physical problems in regards to their academic persistence (Comings, Parrella & Soricone, 2009). The adult learners are urged to return to their goals in order to determine whether they are relevant or achievable in their educational activities. This assessment could in turn help them in redirecting their activities and efforts towards the elimination of the barriers they have been encountering (Jones, 2008). Redirection of goals refers to the postponement of goals until favorable educational conditions have been met. These redirections could be done by shifting goals, adjusting priorities or utilizing alternative routes to achieve the goals. The adult students may also decide to change their learning activities and adopt those that suit them more. The adult students should make informed decisions that should be accompanied by their execution plans and the hope of achieving their set goals (Miller & So, 2008). According to Comings, Parrella and Soricone, the procedures that are utilized when collecting evidence that is based on the times that various activities take place ought to be accredited to the courses on offer. They suggest that this will include activities like tutoring sessions, the use of self study technologies and instructional materials and reading more challenging and newer books (2009). In addition, they claim that the adult learners should actively participate in the development of communal efforts that aim at improving the literacy levels among their community. The enrolment of women into learning programs was first seen to surpass that of their male counterparts in the year 1979 (Miller & So, 2008). In addition, reports published by Comings, Parrella and Soricone in the year 2010 showed that the women enrolment reached a total of 10.2 million after they were subjected to various increment initiatives. This therefore implies that the women formed 58% of the total adult student population that got enrolled into the institutions of higher learning (2009). Miller and So suggested that adult students could end up perceiving themselves as being in the wrong place and at the wrong time. This is because they perceive the institutions as belonging to the youth and these views could hinder them from persisting in the attainment of their academic goals (2008). In conclusion, the learning institutions have in turn been urged to set standards that are reasonable and attainable by the adult students to encourage them progress in their education (Comings, Parrella & Soricone, 2009). The authors suggested that this should be done while putting into consideration the variations existing in the attainment of their academic goals. Reviewing a program’s policy regarding adult student lecture attendance and withdrawals helps in ensuring that the barriers they encounter in their academic persistence are not encountered again (Miller and So, 2008). Age and Academic Persistence According to research performed by Sanders, the available number of undergraduate men and women was roughly equal between the years 1900 to 1930 (Sanders, 2008). The enrolment of males reportedly increased after the passage of the GI bill (Payakkakom, 2008). The participation of women was increased to 68% from 39% between the years 1959 and 2002 and by the year 1970 the adult men who were aged over 40 years were getting more degrees in contrast to their female counterparts (Hanushek, Machin & Woessmann, 2010). The author additionally states that the women had increased their rates of enrolment than their male counterparts because they had outperformed them in their high school studies. This was mainly in terms of their test and scores records and their prior preparations of getting into college (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson & Collins, 2009). According to Payakkakom, the women who were aged over forty years in the year 1972 had made tremendous gains through their improved achievements in different tests. According to them this move helped in bridging the gaps that existed in their knowledge of maths while increasing their reading advantage (2008). Reports suggested that the improvements and changes in the attitude of the community towards women education, their marital and workplace roles have changed (University Microfilms, 2009). These moves have enabled women to attain greater economic freedom thereby motivating older women into joining the learning programs (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson & Collins, 2009). The response of introducing programs that are designed to handle the barriers affecting adult students while advocating for their preferred styles of learning in the institutions offering traditional degrees have greatly helped (Hanushek, Machin & Woessmann, 2010). Recent reports additionally show that there has been a decline in the total number of adult students who seek admission into institutions offering post high school education with the numbers of those who fail to persist also being on the increase (Blau, Pitts, Baltzell & Glazer, 2011). 40% of the adult students were estimated to have failed in completing their education after enrolling for higher education (Payakkakom, 2008). These trends were mainly observed among the traditional degree programs that are offer from different colleges and universities (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson & Collins, 2009). In the year 2008, a survey was conducted which indicated that older working students do receive higher salaries than their companions who have credentials that are below the high school diploma level (Sanders, 2008). The financial differences that exist between the salaries of these workers motivate those with lower pays to in turn enroll for higher education. The workers in employment tend to receive better pays and in turn enjoy greater stability in their job places. In the year 2005 the U.S. Labor Department reported that the rate of unemployment among their Bachelor degree holders was lower when compared to the rates of unemployment among those adults who did not possess the degrees (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson & Collins, 2009). Previous reports suggest that communities tend to benefit by educating their adult population despite the fact that some of them may be over aged (Blau, Pitts, Baltzell & Glazer, 2011). This is likely because the elderly in the society would end electing leaders who are better, make contributions to charity while facilitating their economical growth (Hanushek, Machin & Woessmann, 2010). According to Payakkakom, the younger generations will most likely pursue higher education after seeing the benefits the elderly are continuously bringing to their societies and families (2008). The skill and educational levels of the American workers has been directly linked to the economic competition among many American universities (University Microfilms, 2009). Previous reports indicate that adult students prefer indulging in programs offered in accelerated formats because they are able to acquire their desired skills in less time. Further research also indicates that most of these adult students are able to persist in attaining their academic goals despite the barriers they encounter (Sanders, 2008). According to reports, older women were found to be additionally aggressive in attaining post secondary education because of the pressures that their families and jobs placed on them. They also enhanced their educational levels due to their desire for getting better jobs and leading better lifestyles (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson & Collins, 2009). According to the U.S. Department of Education, the amount of adult students who are joining post secondary education should increase by approximately 2 million people (Sanders, 2008). The stresses that adult students go through in life and their other commitments as they grow old have been closely linked with their academic persistence levels (Payakkakom, 2008). Ethnicity and Academic Persistence Ethnicity affects the academic persistence of many adult students across different universities (Bordes, 2008). According to Chee, adult students who hail from the large ethnic groups persist more academically than those adult students who hail from the lesser ethnic groupings (2008). Recent studies have also indicated a great difference between the different grade levels that adult students from different ethnic groups aim to achieve. These studies were conducted on white, Latino and black students who had enrolled and persisted in achieving their desired goals (Bordes, 2008). According to these studies, approximately 21% of the black student population had achieved diplomas and degrees from colleges whereas only 33% of the Latino’s who hailed from families earning less than 33,000 dollars in a year attained reading skills (Chee, 2008). These studies additionally revealed that the adult students among the unrepresented ethnic minorities were at greater odds to fail in completing their high school and college education (Meyer, 2010). Hence, Bordes suggest that the educational gap between the different ethnic groups in terms of their achievements will continue widening (2008). Additional research carried out by Brown & Lent, revealed that adult students who come from the same community but have different classes have been seen to achieve almost the same academic goals (2012). Despite the fact that the issue of ethnicity, the male populations were found to be more willing and ready to enroll for higher education after they had graduated from high school (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton & Renn, 2009). The American and European adult students were also found to have higher academic persistence rates than their counterparts from the other ethnic groups (Brown & Lent, 2012). According to Bordes, people from Asia or those who had similar roots had greater persistence’s during their first year in college which had positive impacts in their education (2008). The adult students who had non-Asian origins on the other hand were found to have greater urges of persisting in the pursuit of their academic goals than the Europeans (Bank, Delamont & Marshall, 2009). This report therefore implied that there exists a relationship between different ethnic groups and the level of academic persistence among their adult students (Meyer, 2010). However, the participation of the minor ethnic groups in fields lie engineering, science or mathematics is lower when compared to the persistence of students with Caucasian or Asian origin (Chee, 2008). Previous research additionally suggests that the adult students from minor ethnic communities have had to contend with the barriers they have been experiencing over the years (Meyer, 2010). The research additionally claims that adult students hailing from different ethnic communities usually indulge in diverse educational acts. According to Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton & Renn, conducted on student engagement the engagement of African American women in community colleges surpasses that of their counterparts (2009). Gender and Academic Persistence According to Plank, the female and male adult students who enroll in different colleges and universities in pursuit of their academic goals prefer utilizing different methods hen presenting information that regards their academic persistence (2009). Chen revealed that females preferred the unimodal learning organization in contrast to the males who preferred the multimodal organization (2010). The females who preferred presenting information in a single mode comprised of approximately 54.2% whereas the males formed 12.5% of their population (Malmberg, 2008). According to Plank, the enrolment of women was higher than for their men in terms of attaining higher education than the secondary levels. Additional reports however suggest that the gap between the two genders is greatly reducing in some regions but still remains wide in other regions (2009). Huffman & Huffman suggest that due to cultural influences and economic aspects, the illiteracy level among women has reportedly been on the rise (2008). Stasiewicz suggested that Africa and Asia have the highest number of illiterates with only 29% of the men in these regions having pursued education beyond high school in contrast to their women who have a paltry 19% of their population having educational experiences beyond high school. He additionally suggests that in the 1970’s the illiteracy rate among Asian women was 50.3% while the African women had 50.3% (2008). However, as at the year 2010 African and Asian women did experience higher risks of staying illiterate in comparison to the men from similar regions (Plank, 2009). Reports indicate that women enrolment for higher education surpasses that of the males in areas where education is easily accessible (Chen, 2010). Men also have better paying jobs than women with most regions reserving the woman for household duties. Democratic countries are however fighting these trends and helping increase the number of women who are enrolling for higher education (Huffman & Huffman, 2008). The differences that exist in how the different sexes access education are still wide. According to Stasiewicz, the success found in most economies comes from the efforts put by both genders (2008). Women tend to refrain from enrolling into higher education institutions due to the pressures they get from their responsibilities at home or at work (Huffman & Huffman, 2008). However, Stasiewicz claims that the greatest hindrances to women enrollment into institutions of higher learning are their socio economic and tribal stands (2008). The fact that men are paid higher salaries after completing higher education than the females has discouraged many of the women from pursuing their academic ambitions (Malmberg, 2008). Reports published in the associated press additionally suggest that the amounts that women earn usually persuade them to persist in the achievement of their academic goals (Plank, 2009). Transfer Credits and Academic Persistence Previous research indicates that most universities provide the required recognition by transfer students while still maintaining their academic programs integrity (Knapp & Siegel, 2009). Transfer students who come from accredited institutions of learning and are successful in persisting in the attainment of their academic goals are awarded the necessary credits to proceed to higher levels of education (Bostian, 2008). Most learning institutions do not however give two credits for transfer students who undertake courses that have different names but similar content notwithstanding the institution in which they might have been undertaken (Li, 2008). According to previous research, transfer credits are normally considered for the number of the units that are required by the adult student who is graduating (Bostian, 2008). The determination of the amount of transfer credits that will be utilized towards awarding a degree to an adult student is done by different departments within the colleges in collaboration with their registrars (Jeffreys, 2012). Previous research additionally suggests that the adult students who transfer from other learning institutions due to financial or time problems usually persist in attaining their academic goals than those who had quit school voluntarily (Ashby, 2008). They additionally claim that the adult students who have had to acquire their academic goals using their transfer credits have had to obtain prior permission from the responsible academic boards. This activity had to be done before they even registered for the learning programs (Li, 2008). Most of the adult students who present good credits when transferring from one learning institution to another and show academic persistence are allowed to take their preferred learning programs without paying any additional fees (Whorton, 2009). The warm welcome which is awarded to students who are transferring from one learning institution to another greatly helps them in persisting in the achievement of their academic goals within an institution (Habley, Bloom & Robbins, 2012). Previously carried out research recommends that administrations across various universities and colleges should ensure that the adult students transferring to their learning institutions are treated well. This move will ensure that they persist in attaining their academic goals (Ashby, 2008). Summary This paper considers the relationship that exists between the academic persistence among adult students and their age, ethnicity, gender and transfer credits. First, it provides the available literature on academic persistence among adult students and then provides additional literature concerning the relationship that exists between age and academic persistence. It then goes on to describe the relationships that exist between gender and academic persistence and ethnicity and the academic persistence among adults. Finally, the paper describes the relationship that exists between the transfer credits presented by adult students and their academic persistence. References Ashby, F. Y. (2008). Community College Undergraduate Engineering Transfer Students At A Research University. New York: ProQuest. Bank, B. J, Delamont, S. & Marshall, C. (2009). Gender and Education: An Encyclopedia. London: Greenwood Publishing Group. Blau, P. M., Pitts, J. R., Baltzell, E. D. & Glazer, N. (2011), The Dynamics Of Modern Society, Washington: Transaction Publishers. Bordes, V. (2008). Academic Persistence of Latina/O College Students: A Longitudinal Analysis. New York: ProQuest. Bostian, B. E. (2008). Avoiding Remedial Education: Academic Effects on College Transfer Students. New York: ProQuest. Brown, S. D & Lent, R. W. (2012). Career Development and Counseling: Putting Theory And Research To Work. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Chee, C. L. (2008). Academic Persistence of Native American Undergraduates. New York: ProQuest. Chen, E. Wen-Chu. (2010). Encyclopedia Of Asian American Issues Today, Volume 1, London: ABC-CLIO. Comings, J. P., Parrella, A. & Soricone, L. (2009). Persistence among Adult Basic Education Students in Pre-GED Classes. Cambridge, MA: National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. Retrieved April 18th 2012 from http://gseweb.harvard.edu/~ncsall/research/report12.pdf Conrad, P. A. (2008) “Attributes Of High-Quality Intensive Course Learning Experiences: Student Voices and Experiences.” New York: College Student Journal Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D & Renn, K. A. (2009). Student Development In College: Theory, Research And Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Habley, W. R., Bloom, J. L. & Robbins, S. (2012). Increasing Persistence: Research-Based Strategies For College Student Success. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Hanushek, E. A, Machin, S. & Woessmann, L. (2010). Handbook of the Economics of Education. New York; Elsevier. Huffman, T & Huffman, T. E. (2008). American Indian Higher Education Experiences: Cultural Visions And Personal Journeys. Hong Kong: Peter Lang. Jeffreys, M. R. (2012). Nursing Student Retention: Understanding the Process and Making a Difference. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Jones, J. D. B. (2008). Retention and the GED. Focus On Basics. Cambridge, MA: National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. Knapp, J. C. & Siegel, D. J. (2009). The Business of Higher Education: Management and Fiscal Strategies, Volume 2. Washington: ABC-CLIO. Li, D. (2008). 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The Relationship of Selected Academic Factors to the Persistence of General Educational Development Recipients Enrolled In Community Degrees: An Oregon Study, New York: ProQuest. Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A & Collins, W. A. (2009). The Development Of The Person: The Minnesota Study Of Risk And Adaptation, London: Guilford Press. Stasiewicz, T. M. (2008). Social Desirability and Perceived Competence Related To Academic Achievement: Gender and Ethnic Differences, New York: ProQuest. Tinto, V. (2008). “Colleges as Communities: Taking Research on Student Persistence Seriously.” The Review of Higher Education, New York; SAGE. Traub, J. (2009). “Drive-Thru U.: Higher Education For People Who Mean Business.”. New York: The New Yorker. University Microfilms. (2009). Dissertation Abstracts International, New York: University Microfilms International. Walberg, H. J. (2008). “Synthesis of Research on Time And Learning.” Washington: Educational Leadership. Whorton, S. S. (2009). Academic Self-Efficacy, Academic Integration, Social Integration And Persistence Among First-Semester Community College Transfer Students At A Four-Year Institution, New York: ProQuest. Wlodkowski, R. J., & Westover, T. (2009). “Accelerated Courses As A Learning Format For Adults.” Quebec: The Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education. Wolfe, A. (2008) “How a For-Profit University Can Be Invaluable To the Traditional Liberal Arts.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. New York: SAGE. Ziegler, M., & Durant, C. (2009). Engagement: A Necessary Ingredient For Participation In Adult Basic Education. London: Cengage Learning. Read More