Extremes of Body Modification in the Aztec and Maori Cultures - Research Paper Example

?[YOUR FULL HERE] [YOUR PROF HERE] [YOUR HERE] 09 December Extremes of Body Modification in the Aztec and Maori Cultures For over a decade, tattoos and piercings have seen an increase in popularity. Not only are more people getting tattooed and pierced than in previous decades, but those that are span a wider variety of demographics, with body modification no longer automatically assigning the wearer to any particular social class or subculture. In addition, while some still attribute deeper psychological meaning to the practice, others insist that body modification has become nothing more than a simple fashion accessory, or a matter of preference (Wohlrab et al., 87–88). Body modification is defined as “the semi-permanent or permanent deliberate alteration of the human body”. The practice of body modification extends all over the globe since the dawn of humankind itself. Even though types of modifications vary wildly by geography and culture, in most cases, historically, there has been a symbolic reason beyond aesthetic preference. A modification could indicate that the bearer underwent some sort of group initiation, joined a particular age bracket or social group, or it could identify personal accomplishments, social status, or religious membership and ordaination (Wohlrab et all, 87–88). In more recent times, body modification was often associated with lower classes of people, not the elite. In Europe and later, America, tattooing was common among sailors, who were not viewed kindly by polite society. The practice traveled to other members of lower classes. Biker culture, punk culture, criminal organizations, and prison culture eventually adopted the practice (Wohlrab et all, 87–88). It is only in the last decade that the presence of body modification is no longer necessarily exclusive to any particular culture or demographic (Wohlrab et all, 87–88). This paper will focus on two cultures that have rich histories of radical body modification. The Aztecs of Mesoamerica used body modification primarily to indicate societal role and achievement, whereas the Maori of New Zealand share those reasons, but also value body modification as an expression of personal and cultural identity as well. (Wohlrab et all, 87–88). Aztec culture used body modification for the purpose of distinguishing class, societal role, and gender. Gender identity was established in the early teens, when all individuals were classified within three genders: potentially reproductive male, potentially reproductive female, and celibate. Throughout these three genders, body modification would follow a set path based on life events. Astronomers and priests calculated the life calendar and fortune prediction for every individual at birth (Joyce, 475-476) Boys and girls wore their hair identically until the age of 12, in a short crop over the whole head. By 12, girls began growing their hair long. Boys shaved their heads except for one long tuft in the back. A young man was permitted to shave it upon taking his first captive in battle. Afterward, the hair was to the bottom of the ear on the right side, shaving the left. Upon capturing a 4th captive, a man recieved the privilege of wearing his hair any way he liked. After childbirth, a woman usually wore her long hair bound around her head (Joyce, 479-480). Among the Aztecs, nearly every combination of gender and societal role had its own code of dress, appearance, and body modification. Aztec adults began a child’s course of body modification by grabbing children between infancy and 4 years old by the neck, every 4th year, in the month Izcalli, on special feast day. This was believed to make the child taller. The ceremony began with piercing the ears of the children. A cotton string was put in the hole initially, and the holes were slowly stretched over time to allow the child to wear ear ornaments as an adult averaging over 2 centimeters wide Joyce, 477-478). Male noble children 15 and over were admitted to the calmecac, for the training of politicians, generals, and clergy. Commoners qualified case by case, but only for priesthood. Lower class children could attend a telpochalli if they wished, for training in martial trades such as soldiering and police work. In both cases, the child received their first tattoos, indicating future societal role. Scarification of the hip and chest accompanied entrance to the calmecac. Those entering the telpochalli received a lip piercing which was slowly stretched to accommodate a labret upon graduation. The style of the labret indicated achievements and rank (Joyce, 478-479). The word ‘tattoo’ entered our language through 18th century contact with the Maori, who refer to it as ‘tatau’, and the whole process of body modification as ‘Ta Moko’. Ta Moko is practiced by puncturing the skin and depositing a soot-based pigment, as well as the raising of deep grooves and patterns, especially on the face. In 1769, Captain James Cook described the markings: “The marks in general are spirals drawn with great nicety. (They) resemble the foliage of old chased ornaments, convolutions of filigree work.” Ta Moko was used to intimidate enemies, honor achievements, and for beautification (Awekotuku, 124-125). Women were permitted to begin receiving tattoos upon the start of sexual activity, but not before. Afterward, they received tattoos on the lips and chin called ‘ngutu’, which were considered highly attractive (Everyculture.com). Tatau were often believed to have talismanic and transformative properties. Tattooists, called ‘tohunga ta moko’, were of a social class comparative to priests and sorcerersA single tatau is not considered Ta Moko, it is the relationship between all tataus and moko that becomes the art of Ta Moko. Incorrectly done or meaningless imitations are referred to as ‘kirituhi’, or ‘painted skin’ (Awekotuku, 123-125). No evidence exists concerning the signifigance of Maori piercings, and the only established location is the ears. It is reasonable to assume that ear ornamentation was mostly aesthetic, not symbolic. Today, body modification has special cultural association for the remaining Maori, and some choose Ta Moko as a visceral way to keep their culture alive. Open stares are common, and the markings often become a source of curiosity, admiration, respect, and sometimes repulsion (Nikora, et al, 7-8). There is a resurgence in the popularity of the ngutu style tattoos amongst young Maori women today (Everyculture.com). But with the respect that the older Maori may feel for those who wear Ta Moko sometimes comes responsibility. Those who understand the signifigance of the designs can expect the wearer to act as a cultural leader, and fluent in the Maori language (Nikora, et al, 9-11). Sometimes, current wearers of Ta Moko encounter negative assumptions and discrimination from those who do not understand or care for the markings. Shopkeepers may assume they are of low economic status and suggest less expensive items, or monitor for shoplifting. Those in traditional rural Maori areas rarely receive this treatment, as it is culturally consistent. But even in developed areas, most responses are not negative, leading to a rise in the number of those of Maori and non-Maori heritage expressing their sense of identity through the practice of Ta Moko (Nikora, et al, 11-14). One can see the ways and reasons by which cultures ascribe so much importance to the role of body modification for aesthetic as well as societal reasons. While America may not go to such extremes in most cases, we too express our identities in this way. A conservative person may have one set of piercings in their ears, while another may have gauges up and down, and periodically inserted into their eyebrows, nose, and lip as well. An old serviceman may treasure his commemorative Army tattoos, while another simply enjoys decorating their body. Bikers, street gangs, and criminal organizations still use body modification to identify membership, and show rank and accomplishments. Body modification is just as popular today as it ever was, and in the American cultural melting pot, techniques from history and other cultures are entering ours constantly. Body modification, regardless of type, is one of the primary ways that we express our individuality and preferences to the world, and that is as true for ancient cultures as it is today. DIAGRAM 1: Ages of Body Modification in the Aztec and Maori Cultures DIAGRAM 2: Types of Body Modification in the Aztec and Maori Cultures CULTURE MODIFICATION TYPE AZTEC MAORI HAIRSTYLE Age specific X Gender specific X Achievement specific: male X Achievement specific: female X PIERCING EAR: stretch for plugs and gauges X X LIP: stretch for labret X LIP: indicates achievements and rank X TATTOOING Identity specific X Gender specific X Societal role specific X Achievement specific: male X Achievement specific: female X Event specific: male X Event specific: female X Indicates sexual activity: male Indicates sexual activity: female X Attributed talismanic and transformative powers X RAISED PATTERNS Raised designs as part of tattoo patterns X SCARIFICATION Indicates military or police status X ANATOMICAL ALTERATION Suspend from the neck to enhance height X Works Cited Wohlrab, Silke; Stahl, Jutta; Kappeler, Peter M. "Modifying the body: Motivations for getting tattooed and pierced.” Body Image, Vol 4, pages 87–95 Georg-Elias-Muller-Institute of Psychology, Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany. 12 December 2006. PDF. Pitts, Victoria L. In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England: Palgrave Macmillan, May, 2003. Print Joyce, Rosemary A. “Girling the Girl and Boying the Boy: The production of Adulthood in Ancient Mesoamerica” World Archaeology, Vol. 31, No. 3, Human Lifestyles. Feburary 2000. Pages 473-483. PDF. Awekotuku, Ngahuia Te. “Ta Moko: Culture, body modification, and the psychology of Identity” The Proceedings of the National Maori Graduates of Psychology Symposium 2002. The Maori and Psychology Research Unit, University of Waikato. Waikato, New Zealand: University of Waikato, November 2002. PDF. Everyculture.com. Maori. Everyculture.com. Retrieved 09 December, 2011. http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Mauritania-to-Nigeria/Maori.html#b Nikora, Linda Waimarie; Rua, Mohi; Awekotuku, Ngahuia Te. "In your face: wearing Moko – Maori facial marking in today’s world.” Tatau/Tattoo: Embodied art and cultural exchange Conference at Victoria University. 21-23 August 2003. Maori & Psychology Research Unit, University of Waikato Waikato, New Zealand: University of Waikato. PDF. Read More