Structures in a Human Knee and Types of Arthritis - Essay Example

?BIOL 301: Human Health and Disease Answer Sheet SPRING OL1, Dr. Chitua Okoh _____________________ ID:___________ Instructions: Please complete this exam on the answer sheet provided, alphabet answers only for the objective questions. Submit your completed exam into your Assignment Folder by 11:59 p.m. Sunday, Last Day of Class, 2013. Use whatever format that works for you: plain text, TFE, attachment, etc. (Any hand written answers will be penalized !!) Please do not upload your answers. Word documents are acceptable by the system, uploaded documents can not be graded automatically and thus create major problems. Save the attachment (.doc) or copy and paste the quiz and the answer sheet to your word processor. Enter your answers directly into your word processor version. When you have finished entering your answers, save your answers to your computer (always keep a copy of your work).  To submit your exam, please go to your Assignments Folder and click on the tab for FINAL EXAM. Copy and paste your exam answers into the text box and click on "Submit For Grading." (Attachments are acceptable but try copying and pasting first, let attachments be your last resort). Using the Rich Text Editor (RTE) will help preserve the formatting of your answer sheet; consult the Help Desk if you need help with installing or using the RTE. (In the upper right-hand corner of your screen, see Options, then Account Preferences to enable the RTE.) If you have any questions please contact WebTycho support line! Q. 1 – 40: Objective-Type Questions (1 point per question) Please use alphabet answers where applicable. 1. D 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. D 6. B 7. B 8. E 9. C 10. B 11. A 12. B 13. C 14. D 15. D 16. A 17. A 18. C 19. A 20. D 21. A 22. A 23. C 24. E 25. D 26. A 27. D 28. B 29. D 30. A 31. L 32. J 33. C 34. N 35. D 36. H 37. I 38. M 39. F 40. K Essay Questions (10 points each). Choose and answer only six (6) essay questions. If you answer more than six, only the first six will be graded. Essay # 2 A)- Five structures present in a human knee joint are; i- Patella ii- Bursae iii- Meniscus iv- Articular Cartilage v- Joint Cavity B)- Two types of arthritis are described below: Osteoarthritis, also called degenerative joint disease, usually occurs in elderly people because of normal wear and tear. Although it appears to be a natural result of aging, such factors as obesity and repeated trauma can contribute to the disease. Osteoarthritis occurs mostly in joints used in weight bearing, such as the hips, knees, and spinal column. It involves breakdown of cartilage and narrowing of the joint space, with growth of bone spurs at the edges of the joints. The disease can be avoided by staying active and getting exercise to help maintain the joint and overall movement. Rheumatoid arthritis is a crippling condition characterized by joint swelling in the hands, the feet, and elsewhere as a result of inflammation and overgrowth of the synovial membranes and other joint tissues. The articular cartilage is gradually destroyed, and the joint cavity develops adhesions so that the joints stiffen and ultimately become useless. The exact cause of rheumatoid arthritis is uncertain. However, the disease shares many characteristics of autoimmune disorders, in which the immune system attacks the body’s own tissues. The role of inherited susceptibility is clear. Successful treatment includes rest, appropriate exercise, medications to reduce pain and swelling, and suppression of the immune response. Essay # 4 A)- The nephron is the basic urine forming unit of the kidney. The nephron regulates the proportions of urinary water, waste, and other materials according to the body’s constantly changing needs. B)- The five parts of nephron are; i- Afferent Arteriole ii- Proximal Convoluted Tubule iii- Distal Convoluted Tubule iv- Loop of Henle v- Collecting Duct C)- The above mentioned parts are located in the following sections of the kidney; i- Afferent Arteriole -- is located in the renal cortex. ii- Proximal Convoluted Tubule – is located in the renal cortex. iii- Distal Convoluted Tubule – is located in the renal cortex. iv- Loop of Henle – is located mostly in the renal medulla. v- Collecting Duct – is located in the renal medulla. Essay # 5 A)- The large intestine secretes a great quantity of mucus, but no enzymes. Minimal digestion occurs in this organ, but some water is reabsorbed, and undigested food is stored, formed into solid waste material, called feces or stool, and then eliminated from the body in a process called defecation. While food residue is stored in the large intestine, bacteria that normally live in the colon act on it to produce vitamin K and some of the B-complex vitamins for absorption into the blood. The large intestine facilitates absorption of water, potassium and few soluble vitamins for maintaining homeostasis. B)- Five functions of an accessory organ of the digestive system, “Pancreas” are : i- Produces sodium bicarbonate to neutralize HCl. ii- Produces amylase to digest starch. iii- Produces trypsin to digest protein to amino acids. iv- Produces lipases to digest fats to fatty acids and monoglycerides. v- Produces nucleases to digest nucleic acids. Essay # 6 A)- Arteries Veins Arteries carry blood away from the heart and toward the tissues. Veins carry blood towards the heart from the tissues. The arteries have thick walls with smaller diameter to receive blood pumped under pressure from the heart’s ventricles. Veins have thinner walls with larger diameter and carry blood under lower pressure. Most arteries are located in protected and rather deep areas of the body Most veins are found near the surface such as back of the hand and at the front of the elbow. Arteries transport oxygenated blood (except in the case of the pulmonary artery). Veins transport deoxygenated blood (except in the case of the pulmonary vein). The walls of arteries have three elastic and thick layers. The walls of the veins have the same three layers as those of the arteries. However, they are thinner and less elastic B)- Arteriosclerosis: As a result of age or other degenerative changes, materials may be deposited within the arterial walls. These deposits cause an irregular thickening of the wall. In some cases, calcium salts and scar tissue may cause this hardening of the arteries, called arteriosclerosis. Arterial damage may be present for years without causing any noticeable symptoms. As the thickening of the wall continues and the inner diameter decreases, limiting blood flow, a variety of signs and symptoms can appear. Depending upon the area affected and the extent of the arterial changes, the nature of these disturbances varies. Some examples include leg cramps, pain, and sudden lameness while walking due to insufficient blood supply to the lower extremities resulting from arterial damage; Headaches, dizziness, and mental disorders may be the result of cerebral artery sclerosis.; and palpitations, dyspnea (diffi culty in breathing), paleness, weakness, and other symptoms may be the result of coronary artery arteriosclerosis. Balloon catheterization and bypass grafts are used to treat arterial sclerosis. Stents, small tubes inserted to keep vessels open, are also used. Another treatment approach is endarterectomy, which involves removal of a vessel’s thickened atheromatous lining. Common sites for this procedure are the carotid artery or vertebral artery leading to the brain and the common iliac or femoral arteries leading to the lower limbs. Surgeons can remove a blockage by direct incision of a vessel. More commonly, to remove plaque, they use a cutting tool inserted with a catheter Essay # 7 A)- The main function of the respiratory system is to carryout gaseous exchange. It is a process by which oxygen is obtained from the environment and delivered to the cells, while carbon dioxide is transported to the outside in a reverse pathway. B)- The four phases of respiration are: Pulmonary Ventilation: It is the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs. This is normally accomplished by the inhalation and exhalation of breathing. External Gas Exchange: It occurs in the lungs as oxygen (O2) diffuses from the air sacs into the blood and carbon dioxide (CO2) diffuses out of the blood to be eliminated. Gas Transport in the Blood The circulating blood carries gases between the lungs and the tissues, supplying oxygen to the cells and bringing back carbon dioxide. Internal Gas Exchange It occurs in the tissues as oxygen diffuses from the blood to the cells, whereas carbon dioxide travels from the cells into the blood. Cellular Respiration This occurs at the cellular level. The cells take in oxygen and use it in the breakdown of nutrients. Energy and carbon dioxide are released by the cells as a waste product during the process. C)- . Red blood cells have hemoglobin, which contains iron and is responsible for the transport of oxygen from lungs to the body. Cells use this oxygen to fuel the combustion of sugars and fats, producing energy. During anemia, a disorder in which there is an abnormally low level of hemoglobin or red cells in the blood, the delivery of sufficient oxygen to the tissues is impaired causing unusual tiredness. Essay # 10 A)- There are two major categories of the leukocytes namely, granular and agranular leukocytes. Granular leukocytes show visible granules (lysosomes and secretory vesicles) in the cytoplasm when stained. They have a very distinctive, highly segmented nucleus. However, they can be further categorized on the basis of dyes they take up when stained into following types; Neutrophils: play role in phagocytosis. Eosinophils: have functions in allergic reactions and defense against parasites. Basophils: function in allergic and inflammatory reactions. Agranular leukocytes lack easily visible granules. Their nuclei are round or curved and are not segmented. They are categorized as; Lymphocytes: perform immunity funtions (T cells and B cells) Monocytes: play role in phagocytosis. B)- Phagocytosis is internal non-specific response providing with the second line of defense. During phagocytosis, the white blood cells engulf and destroy cellular debris and foreign material. Worn-out blood cells, bacteria, cancer cells, and other potentially harmful foreign substances are eliminated by phagocytosis. Whenever pathogens enter the tissues, phagocytes are attracted to the area. They squeeze between the cells of the capillary walls and proceed by ameba-like motion to the area of infection where they engulf the invaders. Lysosomes in the cytoplasm then digest the foreign organisms and the cells eliminate the waste products. When foreign organisms invade, the bone marrow and lymphoid tissue go into emergency production of white cells, and their number increases enormously as a result. Detection of an abnormally large number of white cells in the blood is an indication of infection. In battling pathogens, leukocytes themselves may be destroyed. A mixture of dead and living bacteria, together with dead and living leukocytes, forms pus. Neutrophils, a category of granular leukocytes, are important phagocytic white blood cells. Another active phagocyte is the macrophage. Macrophages are large white blood cells derived from monocytes, a type of agranular leukocyte. Monocytes develop into macrophages upon entering the tissues. Some macrophages remain fixed in the tissues, for example, in the skin, liver, lungs, lymphoid tissue, bone marrow, and soft connective tissue throughout the body. In some organs, macrophages are given special names. For instance, Kupffer cells are macrophages located in the lining of the liver sinusoids (blood channels). In the lungs, where they ingest solid particles, macrophages are called dust cells. Read More