A Handbook for Personnel Management Practice - Term Paper Example

ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT 2009 Organizational Learning and Development "In today's rapidly changing world, the only sustainable competitive edge we have is to be able to learn faster than our competitors and to share what we have learned more effectively than our competitors" John Seely Brown, Chief scientist and former director of PARC Introduction Management, motivation and training practices have undergone dramatic transformations over the last decades. Growing competitiveness in the market makes modern businesses increasingly rely on skilled and highly qualified personnel then on technologies and products. Increasing attention to human resources led to emergence of a new set of methods, principles, techniques, and practices known as Human Resource Management (HRM), Human Resource Planning (HRP) and Human Resource Development (HRD) (Beardwell, Claydon & Holden, 2003; Reid, Barrington & Brown, 2004). These new practices rely upon the idea that performance depends not only on hard and attenuating work of the personnel, but also on such essential characteristics as competence and ability to learn and develop. Despite seeming simplicity, the problem of effective learning and development of employees is exceptionally complex, and if a company fails to properly, effectively and continuously train and educate its human resources in the right areas of the business, at the right time and at the right cost, serious inefficiencies are likely to arise. This will inevitably result in considerable operational difficulties and sometimes may even lead to failure of the organisation (Buckle & Caple, 2004). Information, knowledge, and skills have already become the key aspects of new economic environment (Guest, 1987). As a result, modern organizational studies place increasingly distinct emphasis on issues associated with learning and development of personnel. Main Body An effective HRD programme should be built around three basic theoretical concepts: organizational development change, leadership development, and individual, group and organizational learning (Reid, Barrington & Brown, 2004). The latter concept has recently initiated serious scholarly debate about the most effective methods, techniques and models of learning and development. In the past, learning focused primarily on individuals: people worked in large bureaucracies or assembly lines and, consequently, the goal of learning under such circumstances was training of the skills required for their functioning. However, since approximately three decades ago the focus of learning in organisations started to shift from individuals to groups and, what was even more important, the meaning underlying the concepts of 'learning', 'training' and 'development' transformed dramatically. Scholars began to perceive these constructs as continuous rather than occasional while the purpose and the process of learning were also reformulated and recognised as vital for effective organizational performance (Harrison, 2005). The existing research in organizational learning available up to date demonstrates that there are at least three major things adult learners need to know: - What will be learned; - How the learning will be conducted; - Why the new knowledge will be of any value (Knowles, 1984). The need to know about these three aspects strongly affects employees' motivation to learn, outcomes of learning, and motivation to use new knowledge. Normally, five phases of organizational learning are identified in the literature: 1. Analysis The first phase involves full analysis of the organizational needs, identification of the goals which, when reached, will equip employees with knowledge and skills to meet the organization's needs (Buckley & Caple, 2004). The first questions to be asked in the analysis phase are "Is there a need for training" and "If something is wrong, is it caused by a performance problem that training will fix" In the analysis phase the responsibilities/duties required at a certain position are identified and listed. The tasks that must be accomplished to effectively fulfil these responsibilities/duties are analyzed and, if necessary, subdivided into smaller subtasks also termed 'task elements'. On the basis of the identified tasks and task elements knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to successfully perform them are determined. Tasks are reviewed and characterized by difficulty, importance, and frequency to help determine whether training is required prior to performing the task. Such approach is helpful in selecting tasks on which employees must and will receive continuing training throughout their careers. A more difficult task would have training associated with it. An easy task may not have formal training, but may only have a procedure for the worker to follow. The outcome of the analysis phase is a task analysis that lists the tasks that are performed to accomplish the duties of a position and the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to perform the tasks. These become the basis for the design of the training course and for formulating the learning goals (Armstrong, 1996). 2. Design The design phase implies elaboration of a training programme that learners and trainers can implement to meet the identified learning goals. Normally, this stage includes identification of learning objectives (with reference to the learning goals) and the resources needed for the programme (e.g. funding, facilities, course content, sequence of lessons, etc). These activities can be roughly divided in three major groups: 1. Deciding what the student will learn in the class and how that learning will transfer to the job. 2. What will be taught and the instructional methods to be used to teach. 3. How the student will demonstrate competency to do the required work and we develop an examination plan to test the student's competency (Buckley & Caple, 2004). Learning objectives also fall into two groups, namely: terminal objectives (explain what the student must be able to do after a given cycle of learning) and specific learning or enabling objectives (what knowledge, skills, and attitudes must be displayed during learning). These objectives must be formulated in language fully understandable for the learners and must not imply any unexpected surprises for learners, instructors, or supervisors. The design phase also helps determine what will be taught and how it will be taught. In this phase the instructional technology and the media to be used. The instructional technology usually includes some combination of the following: hands on practice, lecture, overhead transparencies, video tape, training equipment, computer training, pictures, models, student reading, self study, or on the job training. It is important to decide how the student will practice the skill to be learned. During the design phase the trainer researches existing training material to determine if material already exists to teach these learning objectives. If material is not available, the trainer considers whether to develop new material or to purchase material from an outside supplier (Kenney & Reid, 1994). 3. Development In this stage a training package of required materials and resource must be developed, including, e.g., developing appropriate manuals, lesson plans, videotapes, training aids, audio-visuals, graphics, student handouts, instructions, etc. The essence of this stage is transferring the learning design into concrete learning/training materials (Buckley & Caple, 1994). 4. Implementation This phase includes implementation of the developed training package, delivery of the learning/training, support group feedback, adjusting the materials/resources to better fulfil the identified learning objectives, administering tests and conducting the final evaluation. This phase can also include a wide range of administrative activities, such as copying, scheduling facilities, taking attendance data, billing learners, etc. Basically, in the implementation phase the instructor teaches and the student learns. Although this is the phase that most people think of as 'training' it is the easiest phase to perform. The material written during the development phase is used to implement the decisions made in the preceding phase of design. The information learned about the job is typically used in the analysis phase during implementation (Kenney & Reid, 1994). 5. Evaluation In the evaluation phase evaluation of learning outcomes must be carried out. Although this phase is listed as the last fifth element of the systematic approach in learning and development, evaluation is carried out before, during and after implementation of training programmes. The evaluations help organisations measure the impact of provided training on their learners and their business, and thus justify the substantial investments in both time and resources (Armstrong, 1996; Kenney & Reid, 1994; Bee & Bee, 2003). Despite the importance of this phase, too many organisations tended to neglect it in the traditional learning/training models. Traditionally, evaluation is conducted in four levels, namely: Response - Do learners like the course Learning - Do learners actually learn the material Behaviour - Do learners change their workplace behaviours Results - Does the course achieve the company's business goals (Kirkpatrick, 1959). In the organisational practices, companies gauge response through quick post-course surveys (often called "smile sheets"). These surveys offer a series of simple questions about the course material, and, therefore, they can not measure complex learning or long-term behaviour changes. Post-course assessments to measure how much people have learned before they return to the workplace. In serious organisations, courses with rigorous post-course examination are also known as certification courses: learners need to pass the certification test before they are qualified to perform new tasks. And finally, in order to measure behaviour changes and actual results, training specialists have to wait until learners return to the workplace. Sometimes, these studies take place months after the learners complete the course. That way, training specialists can measure what behaviours actually changed in the workplace and what results have been achieved: this justifies the notion that the best evaluation of learning/training effectiveness is done on the job (Kenney & Reid, 1994). Evidently, such approach to training and development of the personnel implies serious expenditures. However, the benefits of systematic approach are likely to fully compensate for any growth in the training related expenditures. On example of successfully implemented systematic approach in education, training and assessment of its personnel is IBM Company which spends around 5% of its payroll for these purposes. Company's personnel is encouraged to develop own professional skills and expertise not only in their business area but also in a variety of other jobs. About a third of IBM's employees are trained or educated at company's expenses. Besides, all company's employees have a direct access to on-line database of IBM. This database includes analysis of cases, provides specimen of decision making and problem solving. In the other words, it is a complex system of online professional education accessible from each workplace. Since 1996 and by 1999 IBM invested more than US $ 300 million in advances of its informational systems (Scoble, 2005). The company has developed its own system of assessment that includes the following: skill planning needs assessment, professional skills assessment, and individual education plans, etc. In order to assess professional skills of its employees IBM has developed a complex scheme that includes assessment centers, tactical tanks, 360 degree assessment and other comprehensive methods and tools. Rogers (1986: 234) shows that assessment sessions held annually serve the fundaments for employees' promotion or education. However, assessment in IBM is not a punishment; instead, its rather a source of information necessary for both the employees and HR managers. It is also noteworthy that no one in IBM is exempted from assessment including CEO and executive managers as assessment is also an essential tool of identification of strong and weak points and looking for the methods of their effective management or training (Scoble, 2005). However, some scholars also express a concern that the system approach has certain drawbacks: thus, Taylor (1991: 258) believes that it does not fully consider the complex reality in modern organisations while Kenney and Reid (1994: 16), in a similar vein, claim that "a more sophisticated model is required." The drawbacks of the systematic approaches and models identified in the literature relate to preliminary assessment of learning needs, design, planning, implementation, and evaluation phases (Armstrong, 1996; Bee & Bee, 2003). Another drawback of systematic training is that insufficient emphasis is placed on the responsibilities of managers and individuals for training: Kenney and Reid (1994), for example, consider that the so-called 'planned training' approach provides a more comprehensive description of the training process in this regard. The newly emerging ideas of individual adult learning and development also raise the need for some changes in the traditional training, and the new perspective on the organisation as a learning organisation underlines the importance of learning in everyday work (Malone, 2003). Conclusion An effective approach to organizational learning and development, each phase of the process generates outcomes required for implementing the next phase. For example, the training analysis phase produces learning goals that are used by the next phase, training design. Training design (often called instructional design) references the goals to design methods and materials from which learners can reach the goals and objectives. Typically, each phase provides ongoing evaluation feedback to other phases in order to improve the overall systems process. If implemented correctly, such approach is highly effective and can perhaps be considered the most appropriate methodology in the organisational practice. Further improvement and adjustment of this approach are needed to adequately address the challenges facing modern organisations. References Armstrong, M., (1996), A Handbook for Personnel Management Practice (6th Edition), London: Kogan Page. Bee, F. & Bee, R., (2003), Learning Needs Analysis & Evaluation, CIPD. Beardwell, I., Claydon, T. & Holden, L., (2003), Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Approach (4th Edition), Financial Times Management. Buckley, R. & Caple, J., (2004), The Theory & Practise of Training (5th edition), Kogan Page. Guest, D., (1987), 'Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.24, No.5, 503-21. Harrison, R., (2005), Learning & Development (4th edition), CIPD Kenney, J. & Reid, M., (1994), Training Interventions (4th Edition), London: Institute of Personnel and Development. Kirkpatrick, D. L., (1959), 'Techniques for evaluating training programs', Journal of ASTD, Vol.11, 1-13. Knowles, M. S., (1984), The Modern Practice of Adult Education From Pedagogy to Andragogy, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education. Malone, S., (2003), Learning About Learning, CIPD. Reid, M., Barrington, H. & Brown, M., (2004), Human Resource Development: Beyond Training Interventions (7th edition), CIPD. Rogers, B., (1986), The IBM Way, New York: Harper and Row Scoble, R., (2005), Creating and Unleashing Employee Evangelists the IBM Way [Electronic version]. Available online from http://zane.typepad.com/ccuceo/2005/05/creating_employ_1.html [May 29, 2007] Weinberg, G. M., (2001), An Introduction to General Systems Thinking, Dorset House. Read More