The Differing Management Theories and Partnerships in the Community - Essay Example

"The contemplated by a Youths' Club and Institute is capable of easy definition. It consists of boys and young men between the ages of thirteenand nineteen, who have left an elementary school for some junior situation at a weekly salary or wages, varying from 5s to 18s. This description creates a distinct, well-defined class within sufficiently wide limits. It embraces the junior clerk in an office or warehouse, the office-boy and errand-boy, the apprentice to a skilled trade, and the son of the small shopkeeperTheir peculiar wants are evening recreation, companionship, an entertaining but healthy literature, useful instruction, and a strong guiding influence to lead them onward and upward socially and morally all these wants the Youths' Institute is specially designed to supply - recreation, companionship, reading, instruction, and all of a pure and healthy kind." Youths' clubs and institutes. Paper by Arthur Sweatman read to the Social Science Association in Edinburgh, October 1863 Youth clubs have a long and storied history in the United Kingdom. Though serving a modified client base, in many ways Sweatman's assessment of the need for Youth Clubs is reflected in the activities modern day Youth Services provide (i.e. companionship, useful instruction, strong guiding influence). Youth services rely on public funds to run their programmes, though they are rarely run like most public agencies. There is a strong reliance on volunteers and part-time employees, emphasizing partnerships in the community. As such, managing youth and community workers can be challenging. Understanding management needs in this field necessitates an understanding of the differing management theories from which the youth service and individual youth and community managers will draw. Some consider Machiavelli's The Prince to be the seminal work in management philosophy. However, most students in the field regard Frederick Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management as the definitive work quantifying and describing management theory. Though published in 1911, it was the rise of large-scale business and industry during the Industrial Revolution the century prior that is credited with formalizing management and the need for professional managers. By the turn of the century it was evident that informal leadership structures of the past needed to be formalized to organise and direct the ever-increasing employee base while enhancing productivity. Taylor is credited with coining the term "scientific management" as well as the first theorist of the Classical School of Management Theory. As noted by Freeman (1996), key components of scientific management include: Developing a science for each person's work Scientifically selecting, training, teaching, and developing each worker The belief that "management should do the thinking while workers should perform the tasks." (Herndon, 1997) Prosperity for the employer and employee Freeman further noted that Taylor's "Task Idea" is one of the most prominent elements of this era. The "Task Idea" focuses on planning, planning the task of each worker including planning instructions to complete the task, planning the time to complete the task, planned so that each worker performs a task most suited to their strengths. Although initially scientific management seemed to enhance efficiency and productivity, its routine nature led to worker boredom and the management-labor rift grew precipitously. Another prominent theory of the Classical School is Max Weber's Bureaucratic Management theory. Indeed, Weber is credited with coining the term "bureaucracy" to describe a given organisational structure. As reprinted in Miller (1963), Weber believed the "fundamental categories of rational legal authority" to include: 1. A continuous organization of official functions bound by rules 2. A specified sphere of competence 3. The organization of offices follows the principle of hierarchy; that is, each lower office is under the control and supervision of a higher one. 4. The rules which regulate the conduct of an office may be technical rules or norms. In both cases, if their application is to be fully rational, specialized training is necessary. 5. In the rational type, it is a matter of principle that the members of the administrative staff should be completely separated from ownership of the means of production or administration. 6. In the rational type case, there is also a complete absence of appropriation of his official position by the incumbent. 7. Administration acts, decisions, and rules are formulated and recorded in writing, even in cases where oral discussion is the rule or is even mandatory. 8. Legal authority can be exercised in a wide variety of different forms which will be distinguished and discussed later. [as in original] It is not difficult to conclude that bureaucratic management was not received well by workers, as it rendered workers virtually powerless. The third theory considered a part of the Classical School is that developed by Henri Fayol. Known by some as "Administrative Management," Fayol is known best for his fourteen general principles of management. These principles, not unlike the tenets of Taylor's scientific management and Weber's bureaucratic management, are linear, structured, with a focus on planning. However, as noted by Parker and Ritson (2005), "In marked contrast to his [Fayol] traditional portrayal, this study uncovers traces of ideas and concepts that anticipated aspects of the human relations movement, systems-based contingency theory, the movement towards greater employee involvement in decision-making and elements of knowledge management." This is particularly notable with principles 11, 13, and 14, as listed below. Due to space limitations, the 14 principles will be presented in an abbreviated format: (Rodrigues, 2001): 1. Division of work/specialisation 2. Authority to give orders/power to exact obedience 3. Discipline and respect between firm and employees 4. Unity of command/orders from one superior 5. Unity of direction/one central authority, one plan 6. Subordination of individual interests to general 7. Remuneration if fair/satisfies both employer and employee 8. Centralisation 9. Scalar chain/chain of authority from high to low 10. Order for each activity 11. Equity, kindliness and justice throughout the organisation 12. Stability of tenure for stable work force 13. Initiative is encouraged to motivate employees 14. Esprit de Corps is important, as is teamwork In addition, Rodrigues (2001) provides an insightful comparison of Fayol's 14 principles of management "then and now" that provides readers an opportunity to consider Fayol's ideas in light of 21st century business and industry. Whether due to clear shortcomings with traditional classical management theory, or the groundbreaking results of Elton Mayo's studies at a Western Electric plant, the 1920s and 1930s saw the advent of Human Relations theory in management. This theory, also known as Behaviourist theory, refocused management from organisational goals to focusing on the needs of individuals, specifically workers' emotional needs. The task focus of scientific management was beginning to be replaced by a focus on employees as people. Mayo is clearly the researcher associated with the inception of Human Relations theory, but a number of other theorists have been considered important to the development of Human Relations theory through the years. Though not all developed during Mayo's era, theories considered a part of Human Relations theory include (Accel-Team, 2005): Abraham Maslow Motivation theory (Hierarchy of Needs) Frederick Herzberg Hygiene Theory and Motivation Theory Douglas McGregor Theory X and Theory Y David McClelland Achievement Motivation Chris Argyris Humanistic/Democratic Value System Few new theories were proposed during the Depression and World War II. Systems theory did evolve in the 1940s with its focus on the ever-dynamic organisation and the sub-systems comprising the organisation. Contingency theory, arising in the 1960s, while considered by many as a management theory, directs managers to remain flexible as the organisation changes, due to both internal and external factors. In the 1960s, Peter Drucker emerged as one of the preeminent management theorists of the era. Drucker is credited with pioneering the idea of privatisation, focusing on the corporation as a social institution and the idea of "management by objectives." His 1945 study of General Motors introduced the concept of decentralisation; a stark contrast to the rigid, control-oriented programmes previously in place (Sullivan, 2005). One of his other notable contributions to the field of management was the idea of 'knowledge workers' and a 'knowledge society:' As management theories evolve, managers and workers will struggle to accommodate what may be a passing management trend, or may be a lasting philosophy. Whether drawing from the past or implementing the new, few managers follow one theory to the exclusion of others. The skillful manager, understanding that there are pros and cons to each theorem, combines their knowledge of their specific host environment, their staff, and their own strengths and weaknesses to formulate a management plan to meet their unique needs. Management, in the context of Youth and Community work, needs to take such and eclectic approach. However, management in youth and community work has unique managerial dimensions quite unlike those found in other public sector organisations, or in the private sector either. These include: managing a preponderance of volunteers and part-time staff, a strong emphasis on decision making at the local level (i.e. The Hounslow Youth Council), supporting projects that target diverse cultures across a range of ages whilst meeting the differing needs of youth in the community, with both centralised and decentralised provision of services. For example, some youth workers are considered "'detached workers', meeting young people in places they frequent such as cafes, shopping centres and on the street to offer advice and help"(Learndirect). Managing youth workers who work "in the field," serving youth who generally do not provide direct feedback to the youth workers' management makes it difficult for the management to ascertain the performance of the specific youth worker. Whilst there are many tasks for a youth and community work manager, they are predicated upon adherence to the mission statement of the employing agency. As a manager at the Hounslow Youth Service, I make sure that my actions are consistent with our Mission Statement, "The Hounslow Youth Service aims to offer significant personal development opportunities to Young People aged 13 to 19." (Hounslow Youth Services). In addition, staff are expected to embody the spirit of our services as listed in Section 8.1, Introduction, regarding Quality and Staff Development, "The Hounslow Youth Service actively promotes the high quality of youth work delivery, with regard to the implementation of formal policies, adherence to quality standards and attention to staff training." The Hounslow Youth Service has taken what would likely be considered a "Human Relations Management" approach to management issues. For example, the youth service: Publishes a monthly staff/volunteer newsletter to, in addition to other purposes, communicate best practices from across the youth service Provides monthly supervision for both full-time and part-time staff Completes a self-assessment schedule Requires counsellors to complete 1 hours of clinical supervision per month with a recognized counsellor supervisor (DP 8.3) In doing so, it is evident that the management of the youth service want to make sure staff are well trained and informed, demonstrating an interest in the workplace well-being of the staff members, even when there may be additional resource utilization above that necessary for the day-to-day operation of the service. In addition, to manage staff and help staff better serve the youth, the service offers a wide array of training courses. These courses are offered as day or evening classes and are offered throughout the year to virtually all staff (full-time, part-time, volunteer) as an indication of the importance the service places on making sure its staff have the knowledge and training to do their job. These courses reflect the unique needs of youth and community workers, several include: Introduction to Youth Work Young Men's Work Young Women's Work Cultural Diversity Drug and Alcohol Awareness Senior Member Training Racial Incidences Even with well-trained staff, there are distinct challenges as a manager of youth and community workers. The Awaaz Youth Project which I lead, has 6 part-time staff and 10 Millenium Volunteers all between 16 and 21 years of age. Particularly with the volunteers, but also with some part-time staff, they are more than willing to complete their tasks and appear to enjoy acting as a peer educator. Because they are volunteers, though, they are not beholden to the service and can choose to participate or not in "required" activities for staff or decide at a moment's notice they do not want to participate anymore, given their lack of financial or employment ties to the service. Part-time staff have documented ties, but for most people a part-time post is not their primary source of income such that leaving the post does not have the dire consequences associated with leaving a full-time job. This becomes a management concern as if a staff person needs counselling, there is the risk they will become offended by the counselling and simply leave, notably an issue with volunteers. Thus counselling often has to be kept to a minimum, with carefully chosen words, and carefully timed. Another management concern, inherent in serving a multi-cultural population as does the Hounslow Youth Service , is the receptiveness of staff to management or staff-to-staff that may or may not be of the same culture, which likely is different from the culture of the youth being served. The Awaaz project focuses on the needs of South Asians in the area aged 11-25. South Asian staff would be considered optimal staff members of volunteers as they may know more of the culture and concerns of youth from the geographic regions served. However, not all staff/volunteers have such heritage. Thus as a manager there is the dual concern of making sure staff are well-versed in the cultural issues that the South Asian community expresses, plus making sure there are no inter-staff conflicts about ability to serve between native South Asians and others who want to serve this community, but are not themselves natives. Clearly an issue in managing youth and community workers is finances. Resources allocate to youth and community programmes are constantly subject to scrutiny, and often are reduced despite growing needs. This has a number of ramifications for management within the youth and community worker community: As budgets are cut, fewer paid staff will be a part of the organisation or specific projects. While volunteers and part-time staff can and do provide excellent work, full-time staff can focus on project issues other than direct service (such as a volunteer running a group) and will have the time to dedicate to project needs such as development, marketing, running youth feedback forums, and attending other programmes serving the same population. to gain a new perspective on youth service. Further, as resources dwindle, so too does the ability of the youth workers to do their job best. This leads to frustration and unhappy staff members as my paid and volunteer volunteers are committed workers who perform best when given resources consistent with optimal implementation and operation of their specific project. When funds are cut by those outside the Awaaz Project, the quality of service the staff can provide is cut, too, which can lead to staff attrition and a diminished ability to meet the mission of the youth service. Reduced funding has an obvious impact on staff, specifically regarding wages. For paid staff, if there are no (or insignificant) pay increases, staff morale will decrease, also increasing the likelihood of attrition. Because youth and community workers are generally young, and not dedicated to their employer as would a worker with 20 years tenure with an employer, they may be more likely to leave a post when pay was not perceived to be adequate, rather than working with the employer to see if adjustments could be made at a later point in time. Tresize-Brown (2004) and the Brotherhood of St. Laurence published an insightful report on this topic, "Employing young workers: How well are we managing them." Certain standard management issues were deemed important by both employers and young workers, notably clear and regular communication at all levels. An interesting dichotomy arose when over 90% of young workers rated good rapport with supervisors as important, but fewer than 40 percent of employers rated rapport-building as more important with young workers than with other employees. When asked, over 50% over employers believed workshops on generational differences in the workplace and just over 40 % of young workers expressed an interested in learning more about this issue. (Tresize-Brown, 2004) The following table, as published by Tresize-Brown (2004), provides a succinct summary of the differences in the perception of workplace characteristics between young workers and their employers: Young workers' views of importance of workplace characteristics Employers' views of workplace characteristics which are more important when managing young workers 1. Having things well explained. 2. Clear and regular communication 3. Adequate information and support 4. Good rapport with supervisors 5. Being encouraged to ask questions 1. Encouraging to ask questions 2. Clear and regular communication 3. Having clear expectations 4. Opportunities for training and development 5. Making responsibilities clear On the whole, the young workers appear to value interactive characteristics in the workplace, while employers believe when managing young people there needs to be significant clarification of responsibilities and expectations, but the employers do not appear to value the interpersonal aspect as do the young workers. Characteristics from both perspectives are important in managing the youth and community workers. They certainly need to believe they can ask questions and communication is paramount. Given the fact that my staff is part-time or volunteers, there is not the priority on rapport with the supervisor as with full-time employees. Opportunities for training and development are critical as many youth and community workers have no had exposure to 'the work world' and the youth work gives them the opportunity to learn indirect skills (public speaking, written communication) and skills direct to their project (cultural diversity, health education). Managing youth and community work staff has its rewards and challenges. Seeing the development of a young man or woman from anxious to confident as they lead more and more groups is highly rewarding. The level of peer support is commendable, and my staff is dedicated to the project, despite not being full-time employees of the youth service. However, this does make it harder to implement staff trainings or other activities that occur outside the staffer's standard hours as they are not present on site other than when necessary which can hinder service provision.. Further, managing young workers does have its drawbacks, as they sometimes have problems with reliability and less of a developed work ethic than older workers. However, watching this develop can make managing young people extremely rewarding. From Sweatman's vision of what "Youths Clubs" were to provide, "recreation, companionship, reading, instruction, and all of a pure and healthy kind." to Hounslow's Youth Service with 10 main objectives as stated in the 2003/2004 Development Plan, the idea that providing an outlet or "safe haven" of sorts for youth has stood the test of time. Today's youth services, and youth and community workers who manage the staff implementing the various programs, will continue to face new challenges as budgets are cut and resources become more scarce. To best respond to these external circumstances, the self-aware and well-schooled manager will draw on management theories from the past, new theories as they stand the test of time, knowledge on him or herself, and blend it with knowledge of their project to continue to provide outstanding service, in the light of the many challenges facing managers today. References Accel-Team.com (2005). Retrieved 21 February 2006. Retrieved 20 February 2006 from http://www.accel.team-com Freeman, M. (1996). Scientific management: 100 years old; poised for the next century. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 61(2), 35-41. Hassock, L. Hounslow Youth Service Development Plan 2003/04. Hounslow Youth Service, Middlesex. Retrieved 19 February 2006 from www.hounslowyouth.org.uk/youth%20service%20plan%202003-6.pdf Herndon, S. (1997). Theory and practice: Implications for the implementation of communication technology in organizations. Journal of Business Communication, 34(1), 121-129. Learndirect. Youth and Community Worker. Retrieved 19 February 2006 from http://www.learndirect-advice.co.uk/helpwithyourcareer/jobprofiles/profile300/ Miller, S. (1963). Max Weber. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. Parker, L., & Ritson, P. (2005) Revisting Fayol: Anticipating Contemporary Management. British Journal of Management, 16(3), 175-193. Rodrigues, C. (2001) Fayol's principles of management then and now: a framework for managing today's organizations effectively. Management Decision, 39(10), 880-889. Sullivan, P. (2005, November 12). Management Visionary Peter Drucker Dies. Washington Post, p. B6 Sweatman, A (1863) 'Youths' clubs and institutes' in H. Solly (1867) Working Men's Clubs revised edn. 1904), London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent and Co. Reproduced in the informal education archives. www.infed.org/archives/e.texts/youths_clubs_and_institutes.htm. Swinton, L. Elton Mayo - Human Relations Theory. Management for the Rest of Us. Retrieved 21 February 2006 from http://mftrou.com/elton-mayo.html Tresize-Brown, M. (2004). Employing young workers: How well are we managing them Brotherhood of St. Laurence. Retrieved 19 February 2006 from http://www.bsl.org.au/pdfs/young-workers.pdf Waddell, Col. D. III. (1994). A Situational Leadership Model for Military Leaders. Aerospace Power Journal. Fall 1994. Read More