Cross-cultural gender differences in the UK and Japan business - Essay Example

CROSS-CULTURAL GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE UK AND JAPANESE BUSINESS (A CASE STUDY OF BRITISH AIRWAYS AND TOYOTA) 2005 CROSS-CULTURAL GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE UK AND JAPANESE BUSINESS (A CASE STUDY OF BRITISH AIRWAYS AND TOYOTA) Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster. Dr. Geert Hofstede Introduction In terms of accelerating globalization cross-cultural differences in business are becoming increasingly important for research analyses. Also globalization seem to have unify organizational cultures and align the cultural differences overseas, complete convergence in business practices is still far from completion. At the same time, it is clear that culture determine business practices significantly. Observing Spencer-Oatey (2000) different mentalities determine fuzzy set of attitudes, beliefs, behavioral norms, basic assumptions and values shared by the members of these communities. Citizens of Central and Eastern Europe are skeptical to corporate values and are prejudiced to their business partners having been propagated and brainwashed in times of communism. The fatalism of Muslim religion often restrains Arabs from worldly plans and priorities. In the Asia-Pacific region the business is characterized by oriental calmness, moderation and tendency to the harmony. Western culture focuses on clear decision making, transparent relationships with partners and respect to contracts and deadlines. Even a cursory glance on the issue prompts existence of dramatic differences in business environment in cross-cultural perspective. However, one of the most illustrative markers of differences in cross-cultural business is gender-related aspects. The roles of men and women in are obviously the brightest indicators of business culture and their national differences. While the role of women in some countries seems to be equal with this of the men (North America, Europe and especially Scandinavia), in some other states women are still often discriminated minorities in business (Muslim states and Oriental countries). Assessment of cross-cultural gender differences in business environment is extremely important due to a number of practical reasons. Apparently, the ways organizations value their employees determine a number of key business parameters, i.e.: organizational behavior and environment, communication, leadership, yet business performance. According to Hall (1959) culture serves a "silent language" which the parties need in addition to the language they are speaking in order to find a common ground for communication and mutual understanding. Business culture apparently serves a kind of "social glue" that binds people and provides them a clear identity as a community. Naturally, culture may also serve "social dissolvent" giving people a sense that they are different and belong to brand different communities. In this survey I will evaluate cross-cultural gender differences in businesses in Japan and the United Kingdom, assess the impact of these differences on business practices and organizational effectiveness as well as evaluate the case studies of Japanese Toyota Corp. and the UK British Airways. Cross-cultural gender differences in the UK and Japan Nowadays there are at least several globally-recognized and influential frameworks of cultural differences assessment. Most of these frameworks have been designed specifically for business environment and include gender aspects (Inkeles and Levinson, 1969; McGregor, 1957; Hofstede, 1980; 1997; 2001). Among the models of cross-cultural gender differences Hofstede's framework seems to be most influential. Geert Hofstede was a Dutch organizational scientist employed by IBM in 1960s. Hofstede (1980) who was able to monitor organizational differences in cross-cultural perspectives assumed that there might be universal and culture-related variables that contribute to these differences. During 1968-1972 Hofstede analyzed the cases of 116.000 IBM employees in different states and developed the list of factors to contribute in cross-cultural differences in business environment. According to Geert Hofstede model of cross-cultural differences there are five major cultural dimensions that differentiate business environment in a global scale. They are: Power distances (PDI) Individualism versus collectivism (IDV); Masculinity versus femininity (MAS) Uncertainty avoidance (UAI); and Long term orientation (LTO) later included into the original framework; According to Hofstede (1980; 1997; 2001), the UK and Japan represent brand different cultures in respect to business making in general and women's role in business in particular. The project would be incomplete without thorough analysis of general cross-cultural differences in both countries. The cross-cultural differences in Japan and the UK according to Hofstede's criteria are illustrated on the following chart (chart 1): Chart 1. Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions: the cases of Japan and the UK (source: http://www.geert-hofstede.com) As the charts above clearly demonstrate, Japan and the UK differ dramatically according to Hofstede's (1980; 1997) dimensions. The power distance is much higher (20% in average) in Japan than in the UK. Japan is typical collectivistic country while the UK is one of the world's most individualistic states. Japan is ranked first in Hofstede's list of masculine-orientated societies (with 95 score) and the UK is much less masculine-centered (with 60 score). The level of uncertainty avoidance in world's highest in Japan and one of the world's smallest in the UK. Eventually, Japanese businessmen focus much on long-term perspective while their counterparts in the UK pursue the goals within their rich. In fact, Japan and the UK are located on almost opposite poles of business cultures, particularly in respect to masculinity/femininity, power distance and uncertainty avoidance. Geert Hofstede (1998) has recently reconsidered his model to cover more Asian cultural factors. He found out a new Asian-related factor denoted as Confucian Dynamism. Confucian Dynamism (CVS) expands the original meaning of power distance, individualism/collectivism and masculinity/femininity dimensions. Confucian Dynamism also has several sub-factors, i.e.: (i) persistence, (ii) ordering relationships, (iii) thrift, and, (iv) sense of shame. Persistence is a general determination and insistence in pursuing a goal. Once a goal is settled Asian people will work through frustrations and disappointment to reach the objective. Ordering relationships are strong hierarchies within Asian business-environment. Thrift is a general economy of Asians and dislike of waste that leads to development of products that are economic and reliable in use. A sense of shame is a feeling that happens when a goal is not reached. Among the abovementioned Hofstede's cultural dimensions, gender differences seem to be key factors according to which culture differs. Hofstede (1980; 1997) believes that masculinity / femininity ratios are keys to understand the nature of organizational culture. Masculinity -centered (MAS) states are characterized with traditionally low rights of women in society, gender discrimination, segregation of sexes, and lower access of women to education and professional self-realization. High MAS countries pay women much less, even regardless the large percent of women at work. The major difference between high and low MAS countries is that in high MAS cultures people "live in order to work" whereas in the low MAS they "work in order to live". Traditionally, advocates of organizational gender equity focus on employment equity issues, particularly on reducing barriers to women in the workplaces; on improving women's presentation at all levels of organizations, particularly at decision-making one. Success of gender equality advocates in the UK has been much more visible that that of their counterparts in Japan. However, we need to address some anthropological fundamentals of gender in Japanese and British cultures. Japan and the UK are two industrialized states with considerable impact on the world economy. Both states have distinctly different cultures and business environments (Hall and Hall, 1987), particularly in respect to gender roles (Hofstede, 1980, 2001). Due to this very cultural difference Japan and the UK may be interesting for comparison. As a matter of fact, in oriental cultures women have significantly lesser rights than the women in western communities, especially in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian ones. Historically Japan has been a typical men-orientated community. With its male Bushido code of conduct women were deprived of almost all social rights and were to be only housekeepers or geishas. Japan has strict models of gender behavior and individual self-realization of women. Since the times of Confucian women's role is associated purely with motherhood and the cult of a family. For the women in Anglo-Saxon culture maternity is as well important goal but nowadays seek for professional self-realization and career development dominate in most cases of women in the UK. Until now this state of affair seem to remains in Japan. Parents prefer to invest money in their sons instead of the daughters. That is why Japanese women are quite rare university students. Even if Japanese women have an opportunity to receive a college or university degree they are enroll mainly in humanitarian specialties, particularly the arts: literature, history, music, etc. By 2000 women comprised around 36% of college/university students. However, as Japan is a "gaku-reki shakai" - a society in which academic record governs a person's future, women in this state have fewer chances for professional growth (Stedham and Yamamura, 2004). Nevertheless, even a university degree doesn't give Japanese women a chance to get a job as many company still judge buy gender, not degree and experience. This tendency is right the opposite to the trends in the Anglo-Saxon culture where women tend to receive the same degrees with the men, particularly the degrees in business, political sciences and law. Dislike their counterparts in Japan, degree provides an equal access of British women to working places. Contrasting British women, Japanese ones are less concerned with career making. Observing Brinton (1998), Japanese women look rather for successful marriage at work than for promotion and career growth. Until the age of twenty seven around 80% of Japanese women marry and change to be housewives leaving their workplaces. According to Kelsky (1999), regardless gradual rise of women's role in Japanese society, the problem is actually in local women who focus rather on wifehood and motherhood perspectives than on career development. Respectively, Japanese males say, "work is a wife" spending more of their time with associates then with own families (Stedham and Yamamura, 2004). Gender discrimination is still typical characteristic of business in Japan. The average women's salary comprises only 63.6% of men's contrasting to 80.8% in the UK and 75.5% in the US). Only 8.2% of women in Japan participate in decision-making processes and are executive managers, contrasting to 33% in the UK and 42.7% in the US. Among around 10.000 of officers in Japan women comprise only 1%; only 7.6% of women are Parliament Members in Japan contrasting to 18.2% in the UK or 40.4% in Sweden. Besides, Japanese men still bear negative stereotypes of women at work usually considering then to be of low professional qualification then men (Stedham and Yamamura, 2004). As Makihara (1990, p.35) found out "though Japanese women are among the best educated women in the world, they are, by Western standards, second-class citizens in their own country. Traditional values discourage women from appearing outspoken or independent-minded and demoralize those who try to climb the political or business hierarchies". In Japan, women at work risks to face a set of male harassments - from overt sexism to deep-seated attitudes about the division of labor (Parker Woods, 2005) Gender differentiation is one characteristic that strike either tourists in Japan or those who attempt to study the Japanese language. Though English is considered to be a purely male-centered language, Japanese is much more gender discriminative. Men and women in Japan are prescribed to use different speech patterns and words. For instance, men use "boku" or "ore" for "I" whereas women say "watashi" or "atashi" (Kanayama and Cooper-Chen, 2005). Case-study analysis: cross-cultural gender differences in Toyota and British Airways Toyota case study For how strange it may sound but the world's second-largest economy and home to global enterprises like Toyota, Mitsubishi or Sony still lags far behind the UK and other nations in respect to promoting women in the workplace (Taylor, 1996). Toyota is Japanese greatest manufacturer of cars and world's third hugest car assembling company. Toyota city for Japan is the same that Detroit for Americans or Wolfsburg for Germans. However, regardless Toyota is one of the world's most advanced companies the Japanese archetypal attitude to women at work still dominates in company's organizational culture. Though Toyota tends to advertise itself as a "gender blind" (equal opportunity employer) company, women in Toyota are still ascribed stereotyped role concepts deeply rooted in Japanese society. Male workers dominate in Toyota and account for more than 65% of employees. Besides, women are usually engaged in electronics, sewing departments and auxiliary activities in Toyota; a single women works at Toyota's assembly line. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the ratio 65 to 35 is one of the best in Japanese economy (Taylor, 1996). There are no women in Toyota's board. Neither have they participated in decision making in Toyota. It is illustrative that only 1.6% of managing posts in Toyota belong to the women. Even being the women-managers in Toyota usually do supportive job as the substitutes of their male associates. Regardless the growing desire of women to get a position at Toyota, its responsible officers still tend hesitate employing women as managers, believing that they lack corresponding knowledge and responsibility. Toyota also discriminates its employees on gender criteria. For example, women on the maternity leave are seldom welcomed back to Toyota. In the other words, the "quit and return" policy typical for European and American companies works poorly in Toyota Corp. Regardless the growth of childcare leave in Toyota during the recent five years, the number of paid leaves is still negligible (chart 2). Chart 2. The Number of Employees to Take Childcare Leaves in Toyota (Source: Environmental and Social report, 2005) Toyota feminine employees as well receive lower salaries then their male counterparts. In Toyota they receive in average 73% of the men's salary. In fact, Toyota follows the All-Japan phenomena "first-class women, second-class pay" (Parker Woods, 2005) Observing Takeshi Kitajo, Toyota's HR manager, the company hires women only due to concern that there will be a shortage of man power in the nearest future. As the population of young people in Japan gradually declines women will obviously appear more actively hired at Toyota (Parker Woods, 2005). Regardless the general discrimination of women at workplaces in Japan, Toyota, notwithstanding the abovementioned, is one of the local pioneers in women promotion. Already within the recent five years Toyota has raised percentage of its women employees from 20% to 35% (chart 3): Chart 3. Growth in Female Employees at Toyota Corp. (Source: Environmental and Social report, 2005) In 2002 Toyota developed and rolled out the Diversity Project aimed to promote the roles of women in the company. This three-tier plan implies the following: To help enable women to work and raise children at the same time, particularly through provision of children-care program; To assist women in career building, particularly to empower and promote women involving them in decision-making processes; To reform the working environment and employee awareness, particularly the attitudes of male workers to their female associates (Environmental and Social report, 2005) British Airways case study Contrasting to Toyota, British Airways, one of the world's leading air carriers, is much more "feminine" company. Since 1946 British Airways (BA) has been hiring women as stewardess. However, at that time BA was far from highlighting femininity of its staff: the company "de-sexed" their female stewards by removing any hints of glamour (Mills, 1998). The uniform of stewardess followed strict male uniform both in style and fabric. Flight attendants of BA were prohibited to marry or to have children and were often forced to leave the company in their thirties (Whitelegg, 2005). However, with time BA has been developing more transparent and unbiased policy towards gender. While there is no women at Toyota's board, BA may be proud of its four women (more than 25%) among the fourteen members of Corporate Board. By October 2003 37 percent of all senior managers positions were appointed by females comparing to UK's average 22 percent (Mills, 1994; 1999). By 2003 BA was one of the most "female" companies in the UK with 42 percent of women staff and 33 percent of management females (chart 4). British Airways gender ratio All females Management females March 2002 45.45% 31.39% June 2002 44.97% 31.48% September 2002 41.87% 32.04% December 2002 41.89% 33.07% March 2003 42.00% 33.00% Chart 4. British Airways gender ratio (Source: BA corporate report, 2003) The tendency of women employees increase from 1995 to 2000 is illustrated on the chart that follows (Chart 5): Chart 5. Women employees in BA in percent to total employees (Source: BA 2000 Corporate Report) Contrasting Toyota where the role of women is minimal, the women in BA tend to defend their rights. It is illustrative that in 2005 BA pilot Jessica Starmer wan a case with BA after she was denied fifty percent part-time to look after her one-year daughter. BA is one of the world's few companies to employ women as pilots (Mills, 1996; 1998). The company has designed own Sponsored Pilot Training Scheme accessible both for males and females. Currently BA employs over twenty women pilots; greater in number than in the any other world's air carrier. Conclusions Cross-cultural gender differences bring the fundamental diversities into the business environment. According to Hofstede cultural dimensions, masculinity vs. femininity are the key factors that describe organizational culture in different states. In terms of gender differences Japan and the UK represent almost different poles. While Japan is the world's most masculine society, the UK is masculine-feminine society. However, both countries are characterized as the societies with the growing role of women in business. The roles of women in business in Japan and the UK depend on anthropological issues significantly. While women in Japan have always been considered as mothers and housewives their counterparts in the UK have traditionally occupied the offices in business and governance. The cross-cultural gender differences reflect in the business practices of both states. Japan business is predominantly male-orientated society with around 1-2% of managers' women (1.6% in case of Toyota) and around 20% of employees (35% for Toyota). The role of women in the UK is significantly higher. 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