Child Labour and Its Impact on Childhood and Child Health - Report Example

?Child labour and its impact on childhood and child health “Children who are compelled to work are robbed of childhood itself" Ann Veneman, UNICEF Executive Director Introduction: Child labour is a global concern however it is more concentrated in third world and /or developing countries. According to the International Labour Organization approximately 215 million children worldwide are employed as full time labour with little or no access to education and play (ILO, 2012). They have no access to proper nutrition or care and are essentially, deprived of their right to childhood. A significant number of these children live in third world countries, where the children are exposed to hazardous environments which are deemed to be detrimental for their physical and mental health. According to estimates almost 14 per cent of the world's children under the age of 18 are engaged in active employment. This proportion is higher in third world countries such as India, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Yemen (One World, 2012). The interest in child labour issues has increased significantly over the recent decades (Edmonds & Pavcnik, 2005; Basu & Tzannatos, 2003) indicating the gravity of the issue and its far reaching impacts on the children globally. This paper aims to discuss various issues related to child labour including its impact on the health and well-being of the children, theoretical perspectives of the issue, the implication of the issue on the intervention strategies, the various concepts of health and well-being, as well as the other side of the issue -i.e. the counterviews. This essay aims to explore analyse and assess the manner in which influences and affects various aspects of childhood and child health and recommends various intervention techniques which can be implemented in order to ensure good health, good practices and overall development of children exposed to such labour. Impact on childhood and child health: Research indicates that the environmental conditions of workplaces play a key role in the health and well-being of the workers (Briner, 2000; Fassa, Facchini, and Agnol, 1999; Tiwari, 2005). Children are far more vulnerable to ill-health if made to work in extreme conditions, as compared to adults. Research suggests that due to anatomical differences between the children and adults, child workers are relatively more vulnerable to occupational health hazards. For instance, constant exposure to carcinogens is known to cause cancer among children as compared to adults with similar amounts of exposure. Furthermore children are prone to occupational injuries at work places as compared to adults, since they experience more fatigue and stress and have less knowledge and poor judgement than adults. Also, they are often made to work with tools which are mainly designed for adults thus making it difficult for them to handle them effectively (Bekele & Meyers, 1995). Furthermore child labour diversely affects the children’s education, and robs them of their basic right to rest, play, and leisure. Involvement of children in hazardous occupations at an early age may lead to serious health consequences affecting their physical as well as mental development. It may even lead to irreversible damage resulting in permanent disability (Hindman, 2009). According to WHO almost 111 million children under the age of 15 are involved in hazardous work which includes environments with high levels of chemicals, noise, and ergonomic risks such as lifting heavy loads etc. It also includes longer durations of work, night work, and work environments which may lead to physical and sexual harassment (WHO, 2012). It is argued that children in full time employment and forced to work for long hours are deprived of their right to leisure (Hobbs, McKechnie, and Lavalette, 1999; Haspels & Jankanish, 2000) thus resulting in emotional and psychological stress (Tienda & Wilson, 2002). Some researchers have observed that children are often paid a meagre amount for the same amount of work done by their adult peers. Furthermore child labourers are often forced to shoulder greater responsibilities at workplaces compared to their age. Such factors adversely affect their self-esteem and hamper their emotional and cognitive development in the process (Cox & Pawar, 2005; Buck, 2011). According to a study conducted by W.H.O. (World Health Organization) concerning children working on streets it was observed that the children were largely dissatisfied with the format of their jobs and complained of excessive fatigue and stress. Furthermore it was also observed that young children were increasingly consuming tobacco, cigarettes, and alcohol in order to overcome stress. Also, they were found to be highly vulnerable illegal activities and prone to getting involved in criminal activities involving violence and use of illegal weapons (Bekele & Myers, 1995; Hindman, 2009). Child labour is known to be exploitative in nature mainly on account of its negative impact on the children’s health and well-being. According to studies conducted worldwide it has been consistently observed that the plight of children in third world countries, in particular, is far worse where a majority of children under the age of 15 are employed as full time labour. Surveys conducted in countries such as Ghana (Mull & Kirkhorn, 2005), India, Nepal (Herath & Sharma, 2007), Pakistan (Mooney, 2011), Senegal, Brazil, and Indonesia indicate that a majority of children between the age group of 5 and 14 were involved in some or the other form of economic activity (Castells, 2010). Children in developing and third world countries are often forced to partake in economic activities by engaging in some form of labour at an early age due to poverty. They are also forced into prostitution and domestic labour which is one of the greatest social evils rampant within the third world countries. The plight of female children and those living in rural areas is far worse as compared to the males due to societal prejudices and lack of education respectively (Stellman, 1998; Ehiri, 2009). Child labour: Meaning of Intervention strategies Child labour is rampant in extremely poor countries where working conditions are perceived as key economic contributors in poor households. However working conditions to which the children are exposed are often observed to be highly hazardous and the terms of employment are often harsh and detrimental to the health and well being of the children employed (Bass, 2004; Misra, 2003; Lieten, 2011). The terms of employment are rather harsh which includes long work hours in exchange for low wages which hampers the child’s emotional, psychological as well as physical growth and development. Hence it is of utmost significance to introduce and implement an effective intervention program aimed at mitigating the likely damage caused to their physical and mental health and ensure their long term health and well being. Contextualization and description of chosen intervention program: Contextualization: Child labour is rampant in communities with significant population and an acute shortage of resources. Child labour is identified as a complex issue which entails resolution via a holistic approach in order to effectively intervene and address the problem on a national level. Key interventions aimed at eliminating or reducing the problem of child labour hence refers to developing policies and initiatives aimed at providing universal access to education as well as a range of socio-economic developmental programs designed specifically keeping in view the predominant issue of poverty and unemployment in third world countries. Also programs that focus on protecting and safeguarding the basic human rights in such areas can prove be highly effective in resolving the physical and emotional abuse faced by children in third world countries and help resolve a range of psychological health effects of child labour, in the process (Healy and Link, 2012). Intervention Programs: The chosen intervention program for the purpose of this study include: Food for education and Conditional Cash Transfers. Food for education: Schools have been identified by various researchers as one of the most effective ways of diverting children away from the labour market and hence away from the hazardous work environment which pose a significant risk to their health. There is a strong and direct relationship between child labour and low enrolment in schools in developing countries (Bass, 2004). Hence programs such as food for education can prove to be highly effective in diverting the children from the labour market to the classrooms where they are provided decent meals along with education, hence contributing in their overall healthy development i.e. mental as well as physical. Extending school hours and providing two meals a day for free in schools can not only keep the children away for long, but save them the trouble of having to work in hazardous work environments for food. Most of the poor children are known to pay their own tuition fees, and hence are compelled to work. Programs such as these can solve dual purpose. Furthermore such intervention programs can also prove be highly significant where the availability of required nutritional supplements for such children is rare and are mostly confined to poor diets, which in turn affect their health (Fassa, Parker, and Scanlon, 2010). Conditional cash transfer programs: Conditional cash transfer programs refers to programs which are introduced at the national level with a specific aim of reducing child labour without disturbing the household incomes of the families. It entails payment of specific amount of cash to households in exchange for meeting certain requirements laid down by the program. According to Healy & Link (2012) the conditions required to be fulfilled in order to avail the benefits of this program, include fulfilment of a desired behaviour or commitments by the households. These conditions may range from enrolling their children to schools or meeting certain specified educational requirements or any other such requirements listed in the program such as vaccination, immunization or other similar health based conditions. Analysis of political, economic, and environmental phenomena which influence the intervention program Political factors: One of the key elements that can help combat and address the problem of child labour is the presence of a strong political will. The success of any intervention program relies highly on the political climate of the country. Political stability is hence of crucial significance. Countries gripped in political strife or steeped in corruption as observed in various African countries are less likely to ensure effective implementation of such programs mainly due to lack of resources; the subsequent instability; which in turn results in a constant climate of internal conflicts and a state of anarchy. It is hence practically impossible to ensure effective implementation of nationwide programs aimed at betterment of one of the most vulnerable sections of the population. Economic factors: Developing countries may not readily accept such programs on the grounds that it deprives them of utilizing their key comparative advantage: that of lower labour costs, thus rendering such programs ineffective. In poor households children are perceived as key contributors to household income and hence taking them away from the labour market implies lower household income. Also, poor or developing countries boast of low costs of production which is mainly on account of cheap availability of labour. A significant proportion of this labour comprises of children since they are paid comparatively lower wages as compared to adults. Any program that remotely hints at reducing the number of children from the labour market implies an immediate imbalance in the economic framework of such countries. Hence along with cash for education and conditional cash transfer programs may prove be effective in achieving dual objectives i.e. improving the literacy rate and positive health outcomes for children, and ultimately reducing child labour considerably without causing much disturbance to the fragile economic framework of the country as well as households. Environmental factors: The overall social, political, and economic environment of a nation combined affect the effective implementation of programs aimed at reducing child labour. The socio-cultural environment of a nation or household for instance may greatly affect the success of such programs. In certain cultures, educating a girl child is not considered important enough, since they are married off early particularly in poor households. Impact of the intervention programs on the children, their families and on the community as a whole: The successful implementation of such programs aimed at reducing child labour tends to have a significant positive impact on the children, their families as well as the communities at large. Programs such as Food for Education for instance, are likely to result in positive health outcomes for the children who are afforded the opportunity to consume decent nutritious meals. The families benefit in the form of good child care, since the working parents who are employed can ensure safety of their children in an educational environment where they are not only provided with meals but also education which enhances their mental and physical health. The program such as Conditional cash transfer on the other hand can also greatly benefit the society since it offers the poor households an opportunity to earn cash in exchange for good health and education of their children. Implication on intervention strategies Child labour, until recently was largely viewed as an independent issue. However the rise in literature concerning and explaining the determinants of child labour has brought to the fore the interconnectedness of this alleged solitary issue with a range of diverse factors such as poverty, socio-cultural factors, schooling and education, laws and policies relevant to countries, income distribution, government assistance etc. among many others. The fact that the phenomenon of child labour is highly dependent on and interconnected with a range of other factors, it is imperative that the problem be dealt with by introducing cross-sectoral policies within and beyond the governmental policies. This issue must be brought into the mainstream and made a part of the developmental agenda, thus affording it a central position in all decision making processes including budgetary allocations. Furthermore in order to address the issue the government must collabourate with diverse social, non-governmental and not-for-profit organizations engaged in championing the cause. Figure: Source: http://www.un.org/ar/events/childlabourday/pdf/Hague_Report.pdf It is observed that child labour is rampant in third world countries where the labour laws are lenient and unambiguous thus granting firms a free hold over hiring under age labour (Docherty, 2004). Implementation of effective and stringent laws to address the problem and prevent exploitation of young children must hence be made a priority issue. Furthermore, appropriate strategies must be introduced to ensure that the key determinants of child labour as discussed in the literature, such as education, poverty, socio-cultural factors, labour markets, etc., are addressed effectively. As observed from above mentioned research, it is undeniable that education plays a key role in influencing children to seek employment. Efforts must hence be made to ensure that education must be made affordable or offered at subsidized rates for children from poor backgrounds, so that no child is forced to seek employment merely to enable them to pay the school fees. Education must be accessible across all sections of the society, particularly in the rural areas where the concentration and tendency of engaging in child labour is relatively higher. Comparison and contrast of health intervention programs: Health interventions: Food for education Country: Kenya The food for education program in Kenya is implemented with a view to encourage greater attendance and participation of school aged children in schools. Food is one of the greatest motivation for students in third world countries such as Kenya which is poverty ridden and hunger plagues several poor families which tend to discourage students from attending schools. The situation is far more critical in the sub-Saharan countries where almost 40 per cent of children are known to between the ages of 10 and 14 are employed. The statistics provided by the Kenyan Central Bureau of Statistics indicate that approximately 17.4 per cent i.e. 1.9 million Kenyan children between the ages of 5 and 17 were active contributors to the economy as of the year 2000 (U.S. Department of Labour, 2013). Country: Bangladesh Child labour is a critical public health issue in Bangladesh. According to the U.S. Department of labour children in Bangladesh are involved in some of the worst forms of child labour which includes employment of children in potentially dangerous occupations. Children, particularly girls are employed as domestic maids in private households and are often exposed to exploitative work conditions making them highly vulnerable to physical and sexual abuse (U.S. Department of Labour, 2011). Evaluation of FFE program in Kenya: Various schools in Kenya have successfully implemented FFE programs as a means of addressing the problem of child labour and taking the children away from the job market and into schools (UNICEF, 2013). Most of these FFE programs in third world countries are operated and funded by the World Food Program, an organization involved in providing food in exchange of enrolment of children in schools. The Kenya which is classified as a low-income country comprises of majority of population living below the poverty line. Food poverty is ranked highest in some areas across the country and malnutrition is common among children and grownups alike. The food for education program implemented in the country is sponsored by the World Food Program, an international organization involved in providing nutritional meals in some of the most poverty ridden countries across the globe. Several children in Kenya have received free primary education however despite such efforts the resources available at the disposal of such programs are scarce. The USDA feeds approximately 6 million children in Kenya from more than 2000 schools across the country (USDA, 2013). The food for education program was first introduced in the country by the World Food Program in the year 1980. The FFE program in Kenya is the largest program run by WFP globally (WFP Standard Project Reports). Approximately 1.7 million children are known to have benefited from the program annually as of the year 2007, of which 48 per cent of them were girls. Evaluation of FFE program in Bangladesh: The FFE program was introduced in Bangladesh in the year 1993. The provision of ration to the beneficiaries was the enrolment of at least one primary school aged child belonging to a family judged as poor, attending schools during a given time period. The program was found to be generally beneficial since a significant rise in enrolments in primary schools across the country was observed following the introduction of such program. By the year 1999 FFE Schools registered almost 53 per cent higher enrolments in primary schools as compared to non FFE schools (Alam et al., 1999). Furthermore it was also observed that the attendance rates was also observed to be higher in primary classrooms in FFE schools (Ravallion and Wodon, 2001; Ahmed and del Ninno, 2002). Demographics: Kenya and Bangladesh Bangladesh is a developing country which had low literacy rates particularly in the rural areas and high child labour rates. However after the government realized and acknowledged the significance of literacy and its impact on reducing poverty special efforts were made to increase and improve literacy rates and improve the quality of human capital. As a part of this new initiative the FFE program was launched in the year 1993 which was followed by drastic improvement in the attendance rates and a simultaneous reduction in child labour. According to available statistics child labour in Bangladesh for the year working children in Bangladesh comprise of approximately 7.4 million who fall between the age group of 5 and 17. Child labourers comprised of approximately 1.3 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 (UNICEF, 2013). Kenya on the other hand is a low income country which has one of the highest incidences of poverty in the world. The rates of education and literacy in rural areas are far worse as compared to Bangladesh. However one of the most common themes observed in both the countries is the fact that the social norms and economic status of these countries compel the children to work in drastic and potentially harmful working environments. Children in Bangladesh are typically employed in hazardous labour and as domestic help in private households while children in Kenya on the other hand are generally employed in agricultural sector (UNICEF, 2013). Politics: Bangladesh was politically instable during the early 1960s and 1970s which greatly influenced its economic performance. Kenya on the other hand was relatively stable during that period which was apparent from the fact that its GDP during that period was recorded at approximately 7 per cent. Bangladesh suffered economically due to its struggle for freedom during that freedom causing political instability and hence suffering significant economic downturn during that phase. The situation changed drastically over the years with the result that Bangladesh soon outperformed Kenya and recorded an impressive GDP rate, as discussed in the following section. Furthermore there is a significant difference in the political climate of both the countries which plays a key role in its economy. Economics: Kenya’s GDP growth for the period 2004 – 2012 Source: Trading Economics (2013a) Bangladesh’s GDP growth rate for the period 2004-2012 Source: Trading Economics (2013b) Conclusion: Children are highly vulnerable section of the society and it is inevitable for policymakers to ensure that there are active laws and policies in place to ensure their safety and well-being. The nature of work and the accompanying health hazards may lead them towards ill-health, affect their mental and physical health, cause stress and hamper their emotional, mental and cognitive functioning and development. Occupational health hazards may result in permanent disability for the child. 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