European Enlightenment and Modern Schooling - Essay Example

?Ways in Which the European Enlightenment Has Influenced Modern Schooling Introduction The Enlightenment is indicative of the progressive European culture that prevailed in the 18th century. The European citizens who lived during the era of the Enlightenment trusted in the unique abilities of human knowledge, and disregarded the standard conventions and pre-established ideas of the past. It is during the Enlightenment when European citizens grew confident in the human wisdom and reason. Scientists as well as philosophers began to embrace the reality of the existence of human rationality in a way they had previously not been free to do. Any subject which could not be comprehended through rational facts and the existing status of the sciences was viewed as being pointless or superstitious. The study of philosophy grew quite fashionable among the intellectuals who visited the salons, and literate citizens began to study philosophical opera. Moreover, the common concerns had to do with the realistic use of this knowledge. From the earlier period of the scientific discoveries that came from the Renaissance, human knowledge had been developing at an exponential speed. The Enlightenment aimed to use that knowledge to enhance the state of existence for human beings everywhere, by improving public establishments such as governments and schools. Salons In most cases, the discussions of the Enlightenment, which were conducted by women, took place in the salons which were based in capital cities such as London and Paris. Renowned philosophers like Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot, were frequent visitors of such salons (Burr, 2003:57). Their political thoughts ushered in the era of the enlightened monarchs such as Catherine the Great and Frederick. While essentially corrupt in their governing practices, these rulers were still interested in the developments that were gripping the European nation (Burr, 2003:68). Functions of the Enlightenment Theories The most basic theories of the Enlightenment included trust in the processes of human development, and belief in the natural processes. Nature was viewed as a system of interacting regulations that sustained the universe. As one element of that system, the Enlightenment advocates believed that the human being was created to behave rationally. These philosophers also felt that if people were left free to use their powers of reason, they would act in ways that would improve their society, as they were inherently good. Accordingly, both human contentment and righteousness needed their liberty from unnecessary restraints, the majority of which were fostered on them by the church as well as the state. The advocates of the Enlightenment's categorical opposition to institutional monarchy and organised religion showed their contempt for the institutions that ruled the masses ruthlessly in the past, as well as a tendency to support utopian restructuring schemes. Most of these philosophers believed keenly in human development through education. They believed that the society would grow perfect if its citizens were free to make use of their powers of reason. The two primary characteristics of the beliefs of the Enlightenment were: Belief in human wisdom’s capacity to discard the conventional practices and the pre-established establishments Ideas the development of useful, functional information as the power to manage and preserve nature. Education in the Past In the past, education in Europe was always influenced by the competition and conflict between different religious denominations. The Catholic Counter-Reformation and the protestant reformation are cases that verify this reality in a better manner. Religious principles supported the education of a chosen few during the middle ages. During the Renaissance, however, additional reasons were included as a means of educating more citizens. For instance, the development of the economies of cities in Italy in the fifteenth century required that many children receive instruction regarding secular life. Previously, the Roman Catholic Church had dominated both educational curricular in the few existing schools, as well as universities. Prior to the period of the Enlightenment, there had been some resistance to the church's domination. The humanism that existed in the Renaissance period, which concentrated on individualism, brought the greatest test to the established method of scholastic thinking. At the start of the sixteenth century, Martin Luther, a German monk who characterised the Renaissance, stated that he was against the practices of the Roman Catholic Church. He desired that every citizen read the Bible for him or herself. This would mean that universal literacy would be a necessity. As a result of the actions and beliefs of Martin Luther, the Protestant movement started to create its own school organisation. The belief systems of the era of the Enlightenment generated significant changes in educational theory. The fundamentals of modern education were instituted during the 19th century. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, the Swiss educator, stirred by the works of Jean Jacques Rousseau, the French philosopher, instituted an educational system based on the human senses and the natural world (Audi, 2009:48). Pestalozzi started schools in Germany as well as Switzerland to train teachers and educate children. He believed that schools should be like warm and secure homes in which children were comfortable enough to seek to understand different things and ask questions. Like Rousseau and John Locke, Pestalozzi felt that the process of reflection started with sensation, and that all teachers should use their student’s senses to convey ideas to them. Believing that children should learn about the items in their natural surroundings, Pestalozzi created an “object lesson” that included practices in learning number, form, and language. Pupils decided on, and traced an item’s structure, counted articles, and named them. Students would then move from such lessons to lessons in writing, drawing, subtracting, adding, dividing, multiplying, and reading. Pestalozzi made use of a number of doctrines in teaching. These include: Starting with the existing object before teaching students about abstract concepts using objects in the immediate environment to describe various things prior to dealing with what is remote and distant Starting by making use of easy exercises prior to introducing multifaceted ones Moving gradually and slowly from one subject to another one. At the dawn of the period of the enlightenment, in 1783, Immanuel Kant asked, ‘What is the Enlightenment?’ (Kant, 2010:37). He believed that it is simply the courage to abandon all vestiges of ignorance. Not all children that lived in this era could accomplish this, but the Enlightenment movement definitely contributed to the secularisation and modernisation of European nations. The majority of parents in the eighteenth-century paid a fee to enrol their children in religious schools, which offered nursery care and not formal education. Between 1767 and 1814, in the ordinary British parish of Islington, for instance, about three quarters of poor girls and boys were uneducated. It was believed, in the eighteenth century, that the lower classes of citizens should not have been allowed to benefit from any education. The bishop of London expressed such views in 1803 by stating that "It is the best decision, for both the English Government, as well as the religion of the nation to allow the lower classes to stay in the position of ignorance in which life has originally positioned them. Similar beliefs were held in France, even though they were not as frankly expressed. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the French philosopher, came up with a system of education which presumed that children were, in nature, good. He expressed a different point of view, asserting that all teachers should bestow their students with the freedom to accumulate knowledge based on their own experiences (Rabinow, 1991:67). In his book, Emile, Rousseau's model boy had to be instructed by a certified teacher, and not his parents. Rousseau observed that Emile should shun the traditions of past civilizations, and acquire knowledge from nature. Rousseau believed that Emile should be taught to be a hardworking citizen and motivated to work with his hands. Even though many Enlightenment philosophers believed that the primary education syllabus should be identical for both girls and boys, in Rousseau's texts, Heloise, who was Emile's sister, was trained, from a young age, on how to become a model housewife. The new beliefs of the Enlightenment, made it practical for more citizens to view themselves as not merely workers, but also as components of the larger society. John Locke’s speculations on education, which were as a result of practical experience, were formed during this period. His concepts on universal education that could form a child into a well rounded character are still relevant. Industrialisation, which came about as a result of the general acceptance, by the populace, of the presumptions of the Enlightenment called for the formation of a new middle class. This development, in turn, needed an education system that could generate a learned and knowledgeable segment of the English population. To achieve this, the grammar school syllabus of eighteenth century British public schools was broadened to include science, history, modern languages, and chemistry, and not just Latin and Greek. One of the positive consequences of the Industrial Revolution was a noticeable increase in the total of reading materials that the general public had access to. As a result, the prices of reading materials reduced to the point where books and journals were no longer patronised by wealthy merchants or aristocrats. A knowledgeable public automatically meant a more opinionated public. National citizens were now more equipped to participate in political discourse. It is likely that some of the elite members of society were dismayed by the capabilities of the new reading public, and what this meant for them in their positions as the custodians of power in the society (Spencer and Krauze, 2000:102). The Enlightenment model of education was depicted in the representation of education as putting down a string that all learners must pursue in their own ways, while also enhancing their ingenuity and independence of mind. Educators were required to discover the parts of the different scientific topics that should be incorporated in the syllabus, and this resulted in interesting debates among university lecturers, teachers, and politicians. The gauge to be used, or standard, was to be liberal education, or Allgemeinbildung. In the nineteenth century, all European nations took the responsibility for the education of their citizens at all levels. Private establishments in England were allowed, and usually benefitted from public aid, but they had to observe all the stipulated regulations of the state. Herbert Spencer, a British sociologist, felt that citizens in industrialised societies required scientific and not traditional education (Widder, 2009:76). Stressing on the importance of education in practical abilities, he proposed a syllabus that had lessons in some five human functions: Those required for self-preservation for instance diet, health, and exercise Those required to carry out one’s profession, such as writing, reading, the sciences, and computation, so that an individual can make a living Those considered necessary for parenting, in order to look after the needs of children Those considered necessary to contribute to politics and society Those necessary for recreation and leisure (Widder, 2009:75) The objectives of universal primary education were no longer viewed as being simply economic, or religious, for in an age of developing democracy; the school also had to train the students for prospective participation in civic as well as political life (Boucher, 2009:89). The primary school and essential military service, which grew common in nineteenth century England, trained males for citizenship responsibilities as well as trade. In most European nations, citizens were bilingual, and a stipulation for effectual nation-building was a standardised national language. To grow an effectual elementary school scheme which would sustain the needs of the country, British teachers had to be instructed in training universities, and this procedure inspired the pedagogical discussions. Reformers had anticipated that the scheme would be advanced along tripartite lines: technical institutions, grammar schools, and secondary modern schools. Putting the children in various types of schools would permit educators to offer a curriculum that catered to their requirements. Most European nations also made use of the age eleven. In the early sixteenth century, the reformation had resulted, in England, gave uneducated children a chance to come to an understanding of fundamental reading skills in order to comprehend the holy bible. The Enlightenment of the eighteenth century challenged the authority of the church, and gave the new progressive government more power over the education of normal boys and girls. In the coming years, England strived to give a free and obligatory secular education, offered by licensed teachers in proper buildings. The complexity of the industrial production provided a new test to twentieth century schools. Public Examinations in Schools The Charity schools, which were introduced by the church, and were launched in the 19th century, had succeeded in instructing children how to read and write. The Sunday Schools were also charged with passing on religious knowledge. In showing children how to read the scriptures, charity schools also contributed towards catering to the literary needs of the middle and lower classes. During the 19th century, public education improved considerably for both girls and boys. For the very small children, there were institutions known as dame schools. The women who ran them instructed their charges in writing, reading, and arithmetic. In essence, dame schools were similar to the current kindergartens. The older girls who came from families that were in the upper class were instructed in certain subjects considered as prudent for girls by ‘governesses’. Boys had more freedom. Usually, they were enrolled in public schools such as Eaton. In the public schools in the Victorian era, boys were instructed in subjects such as Latin, but not much else. The technical as well as science disciplines were ignored. Public schools usually stressed on building the characters of the students by engaging in games and sports. Boys who came from the Middle attended grammar schools. For girls from the Middle class, private schools were the norm; where they were instructed in 'accomplishments' like sewing, as well as music. The Church of England, in 1811, established the ‘National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor’. The schools created by this institution were known as National Schools. They observed the concepts proposed by the school specialist, Bell. In 1814, a group of Protestants who were not affiliated to the Church of England created the ‘British and Foreign Schools establishment, which then opened schools that implemented the ideas of another forward thinker, Lancaster. The British government was not responsible for public education in England until 1870. That was when the Forsters Education Act stipulated that every British child should seek be able to attend a school. The attendance of school was made obligatory, in 1880, for all children between 5 and 10 year olds. Moreover, school was free only for the most underprivileged students until a decade later when school fees was eliminated. In Britain, the original standard examinations were administered to boys in 1858, after numerous schools sought the assistance of the Cambridge and Oxford Universities for a local method of assessment. Girls were not allowed to sit for school examinations until 1867. These initial examinations began the prevalence of academic disciplines such as Chemistry, Arithmetic, English,, Drawing, French, German, Geography, Greek, Latin, History, Mathematics, and Law. All these subjects stressed the teaching of the subjects that were recommended by the philosophers of the Enlightenment. It was evident, in the examination results, that students who had crammed the information in various disciplines without necessarily understanding what they were memorising, did not really comprehend what they had remembered. The answers of students tended to be unvarying, directly reflecting the textbooks. There was hardly any enthusiasm among students. Due to this fact, teachers began to ensure that they included questions that would require more detail to accompany factual recall. The students’ extent of understanding started to be examined, along with simple knowledge. In the mid 19th century, tests of a competitive nature were launched in Britain to pick the best possible government representatives among an increasing figure of graduating students for the purpose of serving the expanding empire. In Oxford and Cambridge, the body of public examinations compelled the two institutions of higher learning to further enhance their teaching qualities. When they accomplished this, they started to slowly recover their status. In the 1830s, examinations to be taken by students who wished to attend the few universities were established. While this had the outcome of improving academic standards in the educational establishments, it limited university entrance to available to those students who came from the upper social classes (Burr, 2003:57). Disputations were a common feature in the university examinations and curricula of the 18th century. They would grow to be more farcical, finally giving way to the modern variety of examinations. Disputations were actually public episodes. Owing to this fact, their participants were greatly inspired to deliver amazing results in order to give an excellent public impression. The evaluation of the student’s knowledge, in this case, was conducted by the listening public. The disputation has since been substituted by tests in the question-and-answer model. In subjects such as theology and law, there is the current equivalent of disputation which is known as scientific research (Israel, 2008:42). The preparation for this type of investigation is provided in the modern high school education process. There is, therefore, some continuity because the disputation was the single scientific instrument used in the past century. Scientific research calls for a lot of preparation in statistics, mathematics, as well as subject-specific methods of research. The characteristics of research studies are quite similar to those of the disputation. The reporting is conducted in public, and the laws governing the examinations state that the student has to have conducted the research or at least took part in it. The research standards for the delivery of the work are also objective as well as explicit (Carr and Hartnett, 1996:36). Conclusion The principles of the Enlightenment came from belief in the abilities of human reason to resolve, by means of scientific advancement and education, the difficulties facing humanity and, thereby, change society. In the 18th century, the advocates of the Enlightenment fought against the established institutions in British society to get their ideas to be recognised. A large number were incarcerated, while others were hindered by government suppression activities, as well as by the attacks from the church. However, by the 1770s, second-generation ideals were getting government funds and taking control of recognised intellectual institutions of education. The massive increase in the production of books as well as newspapers ensured an extensive diffusion of the Enlightenment concepts. Philosophical dissertations and methodical experiments grew to be fashionable in all classes of society, including elements of the clergy and the nobility. A majority of European monarchs also began to tout definite ideas, or at least the expressions of the Enlightenment. They were not genuine, knowing that the Enlightenment would spell the beginning of the end for them. References Audi, R. (2009) The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Boucher, D. (2009) Political thinkers from Socrates to the present, Oxford, England. Burr, V. (2003) Social construction, Routledge, London. Carr, W. & Hartnett, A. (1996) Education and the struggle for democracy: the politics of educational ideas, OUP, Buckingham. Israel, J. (2008) Enlightenment contested: philosophy, modernity, and the emancipation of man 1670-1751, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Kant, I. (2010) An answer to the question: ‘what is enlightenment?’ Penguin Books, London. Rabinow (1991) The Foucault reader: an introduction to Foucault thought, Penguin, London. Spencer, L. & Krauze, A. (2000) Introducing the enlightenment, Totem Books, London. Widder, N. (2009) Political thinkers from Socrates to the present, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Read More