Pipelining: A Grounded Theory of Successful Navigation through an Occupational Pathway Literature Review - Dissertation Example

?Chapter Five Literature Review Introduction The transition from formal education to the work place is arguably, the first step in the occupational pathway (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2000). However, during the formal education process, students have an opportunity to select from among a number of career/vocational oriented subjects in preparation for pursuing a specific occupational pathway. As early as high schools, a number of schools are adding “career majors or pathways” to the curriculum to help build “career maturity among teens” (Gray and Herr, 2006, p. 157). Occupational pathways are thus not merely about getting a job. It focuses instead on career placement and advancement (Giloth, 2004). In selecting, planning and pursuing occupational pathways, the individual must take account of a number of factors, particularly the potential for both “lateral and upward” movement (Veiga, 1981, p. 566). Baruch (2004) describes the career pathway as a major part of life and as such is a “life journey” giving individual’s the option to “take the beaten path” or to “navigate their own way in the open plain” (p. 59). A review of the literature informs of the various processes that an individual traverses through in building and following a specific occupational pathway and therefore highlights the various features of the pipelining system. A. Selecting a Profession London (1983) theorizes that career motivation which consists of “individual characteristics” reflected in three essential domains directs career or profession selection (p. 620). The three domains are “career identity, career insight, and career resilience” (London, 1983, p. 620). As London (1983) puts it: The individual characteristic dimensions are needs, interests, and personality variables potentially relevant to a person’s career. These dimensions are clustered into three domains: career identity, career insight and career resilience (p. 620). Therefore, from a theoretical perspective, when selecting a career or a profession, the individual’s own characteristics will speak to the level of motivation implicit in the selection. From a practical perspective, the individual when selecting a profession is best advised to select a vocation that corresponds with his or her “academic strengths, interests, abilities and values” (Greylin, 2007, p 101). An individual’s interests and values may be strong career motivation factors for pursing academic and ability enhancement programs as a means of successfully choosing and implementing an occupational pathway. B. Mentoring/Mentor According to Miller (2002) mentorship can function to motivate students and young people who are “underachieving” (p. 70). Students and young persons have a tendency to seek mentorship from among individuals who are employed in the market in which “they have a career interest” and as such business mentoring “can act as a powerful additional motivator” (Miller, 2002, p. 70). Rhodes et al (2003) conducted a study on 959 students participating in a Big Brothers Big Sisters mentorship program. The participants were provided with a questionnaire designed to establish a baseline and the baseline was tested a year and a half later. The baseline forming the area of inquiry was whether or not the mentorship program served as an effective mediator for improving parental relationships, self-confidence and academic performance. Baseline questions initially established the state of these factors from the onset and whether or not the mentor program impacted these factors 18 months later. Research findings indicated mentoring had a direct impact on the improvement of both parental relations, academic performance, self-confidence in terms of academic ability and a decrease in “unexcused absences” (Rhodes et al, 2003, p. 1662). Mentoring is thus an important tool for motivating, focusing and directing young people, particularly students in terms of academic preparedness on the path to career selection and implementation. Wright et al (1987) maintained that mentorship is also important to the young and emerging professional. In particular the world famous mentorships between Socrates and Plato, Freud and Jung, Medici and Michelangelo are instructive. These mentorships conjure up “an emergent and powerful image” of the “emotional and intellectual integration between a mentor and a protege” (Wright et al, 1987, p.204). According to Wright et al (1987), mentors in terms of mentoring the young professional: Encourage the dreams and support the aspirations of their proteges; they provide opportunities for their proteges to observe and participate in their work; and they help their proteges become aware of the unwritten rules in politics involved in the profession (p. 204). Kram and Isabella (1985) also argued that mentoring significantly contributes to “adult and career growth” (p. 110). In a study in which 24 mentor relationships were assessed by virtue of conducting “biographical interviews”, it was determined that mentoring supports both “psychosocial and career development at every career stage” (Kram & Isabella, 1985, p. 110). In other words, mentorship helps to improve personal and career development. C. Developing leadership Leadership development as opposed to becoming a leader is designed to increase or improve “human capital” and emphasizes career development (Day, 2000, p. 581). In this regard, Russell (2006) identifies ten essential components of leadership development in the context of career development. The ten components are: self-awareness, resiliency, interpersonal skills, communication skills, employee development, vision creation and actualization, customer orientation, strategic business acumen, project leadership and change management (Russell, 2006). Self-awareness refers to the clear identification of one’s own purpose, values and goals and acting accordingly. Resiliency means being able to initiative action, looking for and taking advantage of opportunities for “improvement and development” (Russell, 2006, p. 2). Interpersonal skills means the ability to “work with others” by being both participative and contributive (Russell, 2006, p. 2). Communication skills is the ability to communicate effectively. This also requires the ability to listen and to understand. Employee development involves motivating others, coaching others and respecting diversity in terms of values and requirements (Russell, 2006). Vision creation and actualization requires the development of goals and expected results. The vision is transformed into steps that can be effectively managed. Customer orientation means the ability to ensure that “output” corresponds with “customer needs” (Russell, 2006, p. 3). Strategic business acumen involves improving one’s own “acumen” by demonstrating the capacity to construct ethical support, identify the costs and benefits of “actions and decisions” (Russell, 2006, p. 3). Project leadership is established when the individual is able to lead and initiate a “high-performing” team “with purpose” (Russell, 2006, p. 3). Leadership development is manifested by communicating and monitoring project goals, efficiently uses resources, manages risks and rewards, and ensures that decisions are consistent with the organization’s needs and its values (Russell, 2006). Leadership development also means being able to adjust to changes, particularly complex changes in the organization’s external and internal environment (Russell, 2006). Wart (2008) emphasized what is referred to as “self-leadership theory” (p. 90). At its core, self-leadership theory espouses the belief that: The attitudes, beliefs, self-designed behavioral patterns, and motivational preferences of individuals make a critical difference in both accomplishment and personal satisfaction in work (p. 90). Arguably, those who develop the leadership components identified by Russell (2006) have a greater chance of being promoting to leadership roles or other roles of responsibility within the work place. Developing leadership characteristics means being self-directed, self-supported, a self-achiever and self-inspired. The self-leadership theory asserts that “one should rely primarily on oneself,” regardless of one’s position in the organization (Wart, 2008). D. Empowerment Empowerment is aligned with leadership development in that it “occurs when followers develop into confident and capable independent-minded leaders” as self-oriented goal (Sosik, 2010, p. 216). This means that the individual does not necessarily share the leader’s “ideals, values, and beliefs” (Sosik, 2010, p. 216). Empowerment follows from the follower “socially identifying with” the organization’s vision as articulated by a leader and supported by followers (Sosik, 2010, p. 216). Essentially, empowerment increases the individual’s degree of “self-confidence” and “their commitment toward their organization” (Sosik, 2010, p. 216). Moreover, empowerment develops “independence” (Sosik, 2010, p. 216). Thus empowerment can be distinguished from dependency in which followers simply adhere to their leader’s vision and are satisfied to attach themselves to the leader’s own “image” and “ideals” (Sosik, 2010, p. 216). In other words, empowerment means self-leadership and independence, key characteristics of leadership development. E. Values Howard and Ill (2004), puts values together with vision, mission and goals. Thus the first step in the pipelining system of occupational pathways is the identification of a vision or what is anticipated at the end of occupational pathway’s journey (Howard & Ill, 2004). The mission sets out how the vision is achieved. Goals set out the steps to be taken in realizing the mission. Values are factored in when determining the contributions to be made in terms of accomplishing individual and organizational/business goals (Howard & Ill, 2004). Foskett and Hemsley-Brown (2001) maintained that values are a significant motivating factor in career pathway decision-making. Values influence the individual to formulate a view of society and his or her respective place in society. Young people in particular are influenced by the values established at home and the values expressed in the main stream media. Values are also formed by virtue of peer and teacher influences. When these values are inconsistent with one another, the young person must settle on one set of values (Foskett and Hemsley-Brown, 2001). Regardless, the values formulated by young people will inevitably impact vocation selection, the methods for achieving this goal and for progress throughout the career pathways. F. Transforming According to Burach (2004) today career pathways have evolved as “multidirectional, dynamic and fluid” (p. 59). This shift is manifested in organizations in that they have moved away from merely offering jobs and instead offers “opportunities for development” (Baruch, 2004, p. 59). In terms of the individual, this shift in career pathways’ definition is manifested by the relaxation of commitment to a specific organization and instead the forging of several commitments. The various commitments are made to industry or sector, vocational links, regional, ideology, religious concepts, family, former schools and organization (Baruch, 2004, p. 60). Thus career paths are structured around a number of commitments and not solely on organizational commitment. Individuals are thus flexible in terms of choosing and pursuing a career path and as such are poised for transformation from one vocation, level or phase of an occupation. A Defense Report from the Association of United State’s Army’s Institute of Land Warfare (AUSA) (2008) puts the current career path transformation matrix in its proper perspective. According to the AUSA (2008), in developing current and future leaders among the civilian workers in the US Army, individuals must be: strategic and creative thinkers and accomplished professionals who are effective in managing, leading and changing large organizations. These civilian leaders must be confident, competent decisionmakers and prudent risk takers; they must be innovative, adaptive, professionally educated and dedicated to lifelong learning and effective communication (p.1). In other words, preparing for, selecting and implementing a career paths in today’s complex world of a variety of social contracts, the individual must be adaptive, creative, intelligent and innovative. More importantly, the individual must be prepared to embark on a perpetual learning journey in order to acquire the skills necessary for transforming from one career path to another. G. Critical thinking Conley (2010) argued that in order to be college or career ready, the individual is required to develop and use critical thinking skills. Critical thinking in relation to successful career paths involve the development of five core “cognitive strategies” (Conley, 2010, pp. 33-34). The first of these cognitive strategies is the ability to formulate problems. In this regard, the individual establishes and is able to apply a variety of “strategies to formulate routine and nonroutine problems” and can use methodologies for articulating complicated problems (Conley, 2010, p. 34). Research is the second core cognitive strategy involved in critical thinking skills. Research requires that the individual is able to identify the necessary tools for resolving an issue. In other words the individual must be in a position to identify, locate and gather relevant and authentic data among the sources (Conley 2010). Thirdly, critical thinking skills equip the individual with the ability to interpret issues and to isolate the strengths and weaknesses of the issues. The fourth core element of critical thinking skills is communication in which the individual is able to present “well-reasoned arguments of proofs” that “explain phenomena or issues” (Conley, 2010, p. 34). Finally, the individual is able to use precision and accuracy in arriving at a conclusion “in the context of the task or subject area at hand” (Conley, 2010, p. 34). H. Networking Networking speaks to connections and the opportunities that it provides for insight into job availability, qualifications, expectations and future prospects (Craig, 2008). According to Craig (2008), an individual’s network is a “long-term asset that grows more valuable over time” (p. 152). It provides “insight into different options, and it can help” in terms of preparing for and successfully participating in job interviews (Craig, 2008, p. 152). It provides the individual with career opportunities, “business leads, introductions to prospective clients, valuable business advice, and much-needed personal support” (Craig, 2008, p. 34). Typically, networking begins by seeking to establish closer ties with those that the individual is already acquainted with in the specific business environment. This approach is built upon by forging new relationships with new business personnel (Craig, 2008). Networking is described as an important method for “building relationships for the purpose of career building and socializing” (Lussier 2009, p. 267). It has been reported by a number of agencies such as the U.S. Department of Labor, that more than half of the jobs are identified by “word of mouth” and “informal referrals by relatives, friends, and acquaintances” (Lussier 2009, p. 267). In fact, Lussier (2009) maintained that a majority of all jobs are secured as a result of networking. Networking is therefore very important to the occupational pathway journey. Networking no only informs of the jobs available, the qualifications and expectations of the job, but also helps in ensuring that individuals are made aware of job vacancies and obtains referrals therefore increasing the opportunity for securing a job. Networking can therefore be very useful for job promotions and transformation strategies. I. Motivating Lock (2004) argued that achievement motivation is the key to successful occupational pathways. In this regard, achievement motivation is defined as: Restless, driving energy aimed at attaining excellence, getting ahead, improving on past records, beating competitors, doing things faster, better, more efficiently, and finding unique solutions to difficult problems (Lock, 2004, p. 185). An individual who is motivated to achieve is endowed with self-confidence, and are generally adept at assuming responsibility in circumstances where they are able to control the outcome (Lock, 2005). Individuals who are motivated to achieve are predisposed to accept challenges and not satisfied with simple goals (Lock, 2005). In other words, the motivated individual does not measure self-efficacy by virtue of simple to solve problems. They are motivated by the success of solving more complex problems and are thus more poised to strategize, pursue, transform and advance in a career pathway. J. Communicating A study conducted by the American Society for Training and Development (Carnevale et al, 1990) and the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS 1991) identified 6 group of skills that are necessary for securing lucrative employment. The six groups of skills are: basic competency, communication, adaptability, development, group effectiveness and influencing skills (Overtoom, 2000). In this regard, communication skills mean the ability to listen and speak clearly and articulately (Overtoom, 2000). For the purposes of planning and executing a career path, communication skills are used in a variety of contexts. For instance, they not only help the individual to learn and advance, they also can be useful for helping “others and encouraging problem solving” (Andersen & Vandehey, 2006, p. 296). Communication skills also help the individual identify how a decision can influence or change the future direction of a current issue. Overall, effective communication skills help the individual learn how to make formal and informal decisions more efficiently and effectively (Andersen & Vandehey, 2006). Implicitly and expressly, good and effective communication skills permits the individual to observe and convey issues that require resolution. Therefore, communication skills not only contribute to effective and efficient on-the-job decision-making and performance either in groups and individually, but also aids in the effective and efficient decision-making relative to career development and transformation. K. Leveraging Smyth (2011) informed that leveraging is a creative process and it aids the individual in effectively and efficiently performing job tasks and making career decisions. Leveraging facilitates transferring knowledge and is performed methodically relative to ability as opposed to a reactionary basis (Smyth, 2011, p. 30). Essentially, leveraging requires a level of self-management skills. In other words, the individual is not only adaptive to his or her current career, but leverages knowledge in terms of transferring acquired skills to another sector or another organization or for promotion within the current organization. Burud and Tumolo (2004) describes leveraging as “professional development” in that the individual is focused on moving upward and has “professional aspirations that transcend any one organization” (p. 141). Put another way, leveraging is an important component of pipelining in terms of the individual’s occupational pathways. Once a specific career path is chosen and a job is secured, the individual leverages all knowledge and skills with a view to career development and advancement. L. Manipulating Manipulating is a controversial term and career experts and advisors prefer to use the term, “managing” (Baber & Waymon 2007, p. 117). Managing is most useful in terms of networking and it is used to manage conversations and contacts (Baber & Waymon 2007). It requires a composition and application of each of the components described in the literature for a successful career path plan. In other words, the individual uses the strategies and plans encapsulated in the pipeline journey to secure a career, adapt to changes, move up within or outside the given organization. Manipulation or rather, managing requires that the individual is focused and determined and in many cases assertive and self-confident (Baber & Waymon 2007). He or she takes advantage of the knowledge and the opportunities accorded him or her, and uses these factors to advance his or her career objectives. Thus manipulation/management is the final cog in the wheel of the pipeline journey through an occupational pathway. It brings together the experiences and knowledge acquired along the way to aid in the journey and to achieve desired outcomes. Conclusion The literature reveals that the career planning journey is complex and requires considered and well thought-out planning and strategizing. The journey begins at an early age and is more seriously pursued in high school. It is at this stage where career planning becomes a reality as achievement will determine the degree of motivation the individual will form for seriously pursuing a specific career path. Once the individual embarks on this journey, complex planning continues and the individual is on a continuous journey of skills for life acquisition. Every job is viewed as a step toward advancement or movement. Thus, through pipelining, the individual’s career path is akin to perpetual learning, planning and strategizing. References Andersen, P. and Vendehey, M. (2006). Career Counseling and Development in a Global Economy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. 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