Teaching and learning challenges and strategies - Essay Example

?Teaching and Learning Challenges and Strategies Introduction Diversity is both a challenge and opportunity for a teacher. In a heterogeneous room, it is typical to encounter different personalities among children, and alongside with these differences is the challenge for the teacher to encourage them to learn. This difficult task is at times neglected by the teachers, thinking that their primary obligation is to teach, only. However, the real scenario contradicts this notion. Since real teaching cannot be employed without student participation, it is the teacher’s task to set her students in the class, in a way that they are motivated to listen and ready to learn. On the other hand, external and internal factors can hinder this process. Using published case studies, reports, books, and educational research, this paper will discuss the challenges of teachers in deploying effective teaching-learning activities and possible teaching strategies which may relieve the problem. Issues relating to the physical/neurological and social problems may cripple a child’s ability to learn; and while there is no common teaching strategy applicable to all learners, it is still the teacher’s task to inculcate learning amidst factors that can serve as an obstacle in fulfilling it, through innovation of the known strategies and its application to different learning situation. Part I: Challenges of Teachers in Employing Effective Learning Physiological and Neurological Factors to Hinder Successful Learning Process The cross-disciplinary approach to the learning environment envisions the utilization of real world situations to solve complex problems is called authentic learning (Lombardi, 2007, p. 2). The role of the teacher in the 21st century plan for authentic learning is generally as a “facilitator” wherein the traditional discussion type’s purpose is only to give a brief knowledge to the children about an information. The rest of the stages are subject to the exploratory activities of the learners (please see figure 3 of appendix C). However, finding relevance to activities in connection with reality may not seem to be an easy task for all types of learners. The proliferation of special education substantiated the tremendous change with regard to the treatment of the so-called “invisible minority,” otherwise known as the disabled population. The term evolved in the turn of modern thoughts which are undiscriminating to various physical and mental conditions as reference of social productiveness. Nowadays, the disabled are acceptably known as “special people.” In the matters of education, it has been a continuing challenge for teachers of children with special needs to assist learning, though they have taken the necessary, proper education and training needed. The challenge resides within the maxim of education which mentions about the uniqueness of each learner, much so with the uniqueness of learners belonging to the special group. It is therefore imperative that before contemplating on the professional and moral obligations of the teacher, one must be able to answer the several “why’s” concerning the situation of these children. In the United Kingdom, there are an estimated 1.5 million people who have learning disabilities (Mencap, n.d.), and they are categorized according to the specific condition they posses. However, a common trait existing regardless of categories is their difficulty of information processing. This difficulty is the reason why they are generally separated from the mainstream learning groups. Common conditions which are directly associated with special education is autism and ADHD, and although it is not considered as a “learning disability,” dyslexia suffers children and becomes a major problem for teachers, all at the same time. In the case of Autism Because of the lack of information regarding this condition, it is more convenient to define it with the corresponding characteristics seen from individuals having this disorder. Rudy (2009) defined autism as one of the pervasive disorders “which affects social and communication skills and, to a greater or lesser degree, motor and language skills.” However, a possible biological explanation of the syndrome was detected by a group of brain scientists from Carnegie Mellon University and University of Pittsburgh (Hebb & Minshew, 2004). According to the report, “the autistic has had an opposite distribution of activation...in the brain’s two main language areas: the Broca’s and the Wernicke’s area” (Hebb & Minshew, 2004) resulting to the difficulty to operate simple language tasks. This study might have proved validation through the case of Ben presented by Owens (2006) in her book Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach. Owens (2006) accounts that Ben was “first evaluated when he was 3 years old” because his parents began to notice the abnormal response of their son with the external stimuli. At two years old, Ben was hyperactive but does not really have social connections with other kids same his age or even to his parents. He has frequent tantrums and fails to communicate using the language (p. 247). Parallel to the study of the doctors from Carnegie Mellon University and University of Pittsburgh, Ben’s language area in the brain is “less synchronized...and the Broca’s area is less active” (Hebb & Minshew, 2004). Because of this, a person with autism having a normal IQ level would have difficulties in relating to cognitive processes, making them difficult to teach; although 10% of the people with this syndrome are characterized as well as hyper-achievers. Learners with this condition typically have problems with initiating or following simple tasks, and in order for them to be educable, teachers have a very important role to play. As what Cohen and Bolton (1993) contend, teachers should be totally engaged with the learners or “[they] may simply drift away from social contact into a pursuit of repetitive patterns of behavior” (p. 60). If this happens, children within the school premises are merely present for the sake of it, but actually, not for learning. In order to maximize teacher’s effectiveness and increase the level of proficiency of the children, three children with a teacher “seems to be an appropriate ratio” (p. 61), but more has to be done other than choosing the learner-teacher ratio. In the case of ADHD Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder have been receiving discrimination and often misunderstood because of the nature of their condition. According to Lougy and Rosenthal (2002), ADHD is the most frequently studied behavioral and biological disorder, but still, present knowledge is still incomplete to match the pieces of the puzzles (p. 9). There is no common and agreed definition of ADHD but generally, children diagnosed with this disorder are predominantly inattentive and hyperactive. These inherent qualities are responsible to add up with the child’s biological aspect of problem and consequently would hinder them to learn within the larger class, where teacher’s attention is divided among the group. In the same way with autism, children who were diagnosed with ADHD also have a share of the highly-gifted, although it is very minimal and negates the supposition that all special children are gifted. There is no concurrent treatment of ADHD, but prescription drugs are recommended to decrease impulsivity and hyperactivity. However, in some instances, environmental management is preferred to prevent narcotics dependence. In environmental management, one should maintain a surrounding “free from too much stimulation” so as not to provoke over reaction to the stimuli (Owens, 2006, p. 448). This is very particular to the choice of design, color, and the crowd itself surrounding the child. At any rate, a person concerned should avoid sophisticated designs, and the choice of calm colors is preferable over dark and deep contrasts. Consequently, social treatment of parents or people surrounding the ADHD child should not pose a strict image with high expectations on them, or the child would become emotionally and mentally exhausted. Instead of improving the situation, pressuring the child would basically “compound the child’s already existing learning disability” (Owens, 2006, p. 448). In the case of Dyslexia Learning and catching-up with class discussions might be difficult for learners having a developmental reading disorder or dyslexia. Studies in the early 1980’s suggested that dyslexia is more of an acquired disorder, which mentions about poor eyesight and even lack of education due to poor financial background, rather an inherent trait. However, “this did not satisfy the parents or the teachers” because of the lack of evidence and seemingly subjective thoughts surrounding it. In response, researchers had to make further studies about the condition, and found out that dyslexia is highly genetic in nature (Anon., n.d.). Daniel Rauch (2008) of the Pediatric Hospitalist Program asserts four indications that a person might have this dyslexia. He stated that people having this disorder has “difficulty in determining the meaning of a simple sentence, difficulty to recognize written words, difficulty rhyming, and [has] writing or arithmetic learning problems.” Rauch’s (2008) succinct enumeration of characteristics of a dyslexic encompasses all of the clinical manifestations of the disorder. Contrary to what Graham Stringer claims, an MP for Blackley who said that dyslexia is an ‘invented’ malady to cover up poor teaching strategy, the disorder is a real clinical condition that affects 6 million people in the U.K. (Anon., 2009). Unlike autism and ADHD, dyslexia is not categorized as a learning disability since it has nothing to do with understanding and the cognitive process in general; however, the inability to perceive words or numbers as it is would likely to decrease proficiency of some mental processes such as reading. There are no two people with dyslexia in the same degree because their category sways from mild to acute, which means that the degree of dyslexia may worsen or improve as the person ages. In some cases, dyslexia is not an in born characteristic, but undeniably, the person had had dyslexia in his family’s medical history. In Keeney’s (1969) compilation of case studies in dyslexia, patients with the same condition comes from different age brackets and different age of when the condition first occurred on them. Case 1 and case 2 tells about two distinct types of dyslexia, where the patient in case 1 was diagnosed when he was 55 and the other was when he was 9. Their conditions are almost entirely different with the disability of perceptual organization as a common trait (pp. 71-72); however, the levels of difficulty vary. The United Kingdom has formulated parliamentary legislation involving special education. McFarlane (1981) noted that the Education Act of 1981, which became a law 2 years after, provided “adequate safeguards, rights, and duties for all those concerned with the education of children with special education needs” (p. 1848). Including learners with dyslexia, children with special needs are protected by the government from discrimination and through providing proper education. Autism, ADHD, and dyslexia are just three of the various disorders which are considered to be a challenge for both parents and teachers, much more with the sufferer. Schools which cater special education were created to address the learning needs of these children. The present educational system is not exclusive for the normal or above average students, it is a system generated to fulfill the right to education of each children, including those of special needs. Social Factors Affecting Successful Student Learning Society is a broad term comprising a human and everything that surrounds him in which he affects and he is affected in return. In learning theories, one of the most popular is Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory which applies to human learning through observation of other people’s actions. Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment has tried to prove this assumption, and although the results were parallel to Bandura’s hypothesis, the claim is still a favored topic of most learning theories debates especially opposing the biological factors of learning capability. Bandura’s claim is regulated in four hypotheses which states that: 1) children having violent role models are most likely to practice the same habits even in the absence of the adult; 2) children with non-aggressive role models tend to display more favorable behaviors in the absence of the adult; 3) children prefers to follow the adult of the same gender as theirs as they find it more comfortable; and 4) men have a larger tendency than the females to be violent because of the society’s tolerance over male aggression (Shuttleworth, 2008). Societal influence has always been a major factor of student’s learning. In the classroom scenario, it is important for the teacher to know a brief social background of each student so that proper treatment may be employed. Major influences in the society such as the family, media and peers are the most common social factors affecting learning. The Family As the basic structure comprising the community, the family talks a great deal in education especially in the early stages of learning and the future of the child’s learning capabilities. According to Waldman, et al. (2008), extensive family support and early engagement of the parents or carers in childhood learning is necessary and constitutes positive effects. Engagement in “simple educational activities” such as poetry reading, exercise rhyming words and others, can be beneficial to the child (p. 2). The child is generally in need of parents in the overall transformation, and to be specific, school achievements. Furthermore, the importance of home culture should not be omitted in the whole picture especially when dealing with pre-school children because “the quality of the home learning environment is more important for intellectual and social development than parental occupation, education or income” or in other words, children look up to their parents primarily according to what they have done rather than what they are (p. 2). Winter and Hughes (2009) argue that children learn “from two different worlds: home and school” (p. 1) and so, it is logical for teachers to let the children analyse a clear connection of what they have learned in the classroom and the real situations at home. For example, an elementary teacher may enhance discussion in ratio and proportion through cookie baking. The students would be asked to participate by having their own set of ingredients and bake cookies out of the proportion the teacher instructs. Involvement of activities typically done at home by their parents would be an effective means of instruction. In addition, Deforges and Avouchaar (2003) in their research proved that parents have a definite impact on the child’s achievement and adjustment. The Peers In the period of experimentation and continuous discovery of children, would lead them to find a particular group in which they feel they are emotionally attached: with reference to their likes, habits, and value system. Peer circles are considered to be the most influential micro-sector of the children’s lives especially for adolescents and young adults wherein changes have been occurring which cause confusion. Consequently, the feeling of isolation would be the driving force to find a sense of belonging within a group. One of the challenges of the teachers is the external influences that might hinder learning process of the students such as the influence of peers. Although peer influence is not always associated with social defiance, negative influences are also nondiscriminatory. In line with the process of successful teaching and learning, hindrances brought about by peer pressure would include substance abuse which becomes the mother cause of problems inside and outside the school scenario. The famous quote “birds of the same feathers flock together,” may have seemed to gain favor in the field of social psychology. It might not seem to be a problem, but the question lies on who are influencing the learners and what is its impact on their education. In the case of substance abuse, this issue is particularly alarming. According to Hanson, Venturelli, and Fleckerstien (2006), “social interaction, peer camaraderie, and social approval” are the main factors to sustain drug use. Such addiction has adverse effects not only with the physical state of the user but also with the aiding of cognitive processes. Since adolescent brain is not yet considered fully developed and still subject to changes until early adulthood, it is rational to assume that substance abuse during the adolescent years inflicts more harm than using it during adulthood (Milkman & Wanberg, 2005, p. 97). The young brain is more vulnerable to toxicities and may have a long-term effect on the memory. Consequently, adolescents who indulge into substance abuse are more prone in displaying impulsive behaviors, which at times can become very unmanageable. The Media Media’s importance is distributed throughout every walk of life, and its contribution in education helps in aiding discussions fitted for the highly technology-oriented children of the modern age. Using it as literacy tools can be very effective in bringing out discussions in a different level (e.g. letting pre-schoolers watch Finding Nemo in discussing kinds of fishes and importance of the aquatic life rather than plain lecture discussion). However, the negative side of media also affects the learner’s education, and its weight can be more destructive than imagined. As what Stratsburger and Wilson (2002) contend about the effects of the entertainment media, it influences “buying habits, sexuality, eating disorders, and drug use” (cited in Kirsh, 2006, p. 9). Television, being almost omnipresent in the British household, may be considered as the main media extension that influences children. Though one cannot directly say that television is negative by nature, parents should still be more cautious in monitoring what their children watch especially that violent television children’s programs are gaining popularity. Josephson (1995) contends that children’s viewing purposes vary with their age. Typically, infants and toddlers respond to television shows through action and sound imitation. When the child reaches elementary age, parents should be more involved and vigilant when it comes to their children’s choice of shows because in this age bracket, they start to comprehend and begin to initiate deeper cognitive understanding of what is being watched. However, due to economic reasons, both parents are already in the working force--which results to less supervision of their children’s whereabouts. Gone are the days when mothers usually stay at home and take care of their children; they too have worked in order to supplement family needs. In this note, the classroom becomes more of the initial rather than the secondary venues for children to learn and consequently heightens their roles as loco parentis. Part II: Effective Teaching Strategies for Varied Learners The first part of this paper mentions about the physiological and social factors which affect or hinder learner’s capabilities in mental processing. Such problems may vary in cases and diagnoses, but what concerns the educational system is their concurrent effects towards the overall learning process as a result of both factors. Since these children have specific incompetencies, innovation of teaching strategies so as to fit with individual needs is highly needed, however without distorting the general paradigms and principles of education. Needs assessment is the initial task of the teacher before implementing a specific strategy. According to Grant (2002), learning needs assessment is a “crucial stage in the educational process that leads to changes in practices;” however, the instructor should be more careful “to prevent it becoming a straitjacket.” In assessing the needs of the learners, teachers should see to it that they would still be able to have holistic learning, despite of their weaknesses in some areas. An induced limitation from the teacher with regard to learning experience would be least desirable. In most cases, especially in modern education principles, experiential learning is encouraged. Figure 1 of Appendix A shows the process of experiential learning where the learner is totally engaged with an activity and connects it to real life situations and at the same time collaborating with other learners in the ‘publishing’ and ‘processing’ phases. This is done, of course, with the teacher as facilitator. However, if the class belongs to the special group, more encouragement might be needed in order to employ effective learning strategies with an increased sustenance of classroom management. Teaching Strategies Teaching strategies are specific ways of presenting instructional materials or carrying out instructional activities. Teaching strategies are not to be confused with teaching techniques, since there is a thin line separating the two terms. “Effective” teaching strategies do not really identify a specific set of ‘correct’ strategies. Given the varied learners in one classroom, a challenge raised to the teachers is the call to employ a strategy that would be fit for the learners and more importantly, a strategy that would be fit for the given topic. In the new wave of learners who are more extrovert, more inquisitive, and challenging (including cases of children with special needs), it is suggested that the teacher can do away with the traditional classroom scenario where the instructor is the “pool of knowledge” while the learners are passively accepting all information. If such case would be implemented in the modern and special classrooms, the instruction would be less effective because there is also less student participation; the effect would be temporary learning as opposed to modern strategies which encourage life-long learning. There are several teaching strategies which can be applicable for modern classrooms; however, the following are most effective in letting the students learn how to learn especially when confronted with the factors which can hinder effective teaching-learning process. Case Studies The use of case studies as a teaching strategy is a target of two aspects: the cognitive and emotional characteristics of each learner. Killen (2007) defines case study as the bringing of reality into the classroom in such a way that learners would not resort to the “mechanical application of theory” but assert that real life problems “have no correct answer” and their assumptions are only regarded as range of possible answers (p. 297). An advantage of using case studies over other large group discussion is its role in integration of real situations to classroom topics. Boehrer (2002) found out that learners actually find interest in case studies since they provide them an opportunity to “add an extra dimension to both their reading and classroom experience” (as cited in Killen, 2007, p. 297). Typical case studies would include topics from “economics, public policy, or international affairs” and require evidences from historical accounts and academic data (Stanford University, 1994). As sophisticated as it sounds, case studies may seem not applicable for elementary students or special children, however, an effective implementation lies in the creativity of the teacher. In Science for example, creating case studies out of Disney movies that might interest them would be acceptable (e.g. the relevance of the movie Wall-E in the current environmental situation). In the case of dyslexic learners, case studies might offer more room for discussion participation compared to the traditional chalk-talk considering that dyslexic problems do not have something to do with information processing. Show and Tell Show and tell as a strategy is one of the most popular to use among teachers, since it can be used in almost all age brackets and majority of the academic topics. Both visual and auditory learners can be benefited in using this strategy. In a typical show and tell activity, the students are asked to bring something which means special for them, and relate it to their personal experiences (National Science Teachers Association, 2002, p.36). Despite of an autonomous performance required, it is still an effective teaching strategy in a way that it develops the child’s organizational skills. Dacey and Eston (2002) contend that the said strategy “encourages the students to construct ideas as they make sense to their world” (p.2). Through the flexibility of the show and tell activity, it can be used at different subjects with different topics. For example, mathematics education can be interesting if the students would discover for themselves some of the mathematical equations rather than relying with the experts. For science education, the student may present a particular natural event (e.g. coin shrinking to the bottom of a container full of water) and explain the underlying principle behind it. More interesting events would include “volcano cola” where a bottle of soda bubbles up as the student drops a mint candy (Mentos) into it. In Figure 2 of Appendix B shows a fishbone diagram in which the students can utilize in presenting their ideas with an organized structure. This can also be utilized in the show and tell activity as a main object for the students to share with their peers, with a brief explanation why they have chosen such object (like the fishbone) as a graphic organizer. Through using graphic organizers, the teacher can also see the natural art of the children and the product of their creativity. Combined with interesting topics, show and tell is definitely an attention getter. The activity itself can serve as a motivation and discussion at the same time. Small Group Discussions Speaking of total engagement, the choice of group discussions is also a classic in classroom strategies. Whether it involves children with special needs or with ‘normal’ students, small group discussions are an effective strategy to replace formal class discussions, and may be considered as the most realistic strategy for special education (Goodman, 1990, p. 93). In the previous methods of special education, group dynamics is discriminated as improper for the student’s special needs. However, a recent study suggests that ‘very’ small group discussions provide children with special needs the same learning effect as with individualization (Goodman, 1990, p. 93). Although small group discussions in special education are typically composed of 3-4 members, a careful facilitating is still needed since each learner do possesses differences in terms of knowledge comprehension. In regular classrooms, students who are considered to be more or less “problem students” must be carefully monitored. Consequently, sensitive topics should be chosen with utmost caution and discussion questions should be carefully structured to avoid disputes during the actual discussion activity. Orlich, et al. (2009) contend that “students need to learn how to express their ideas and incorporate discussion skills effectively” (p. 254). An important point made by Orlich, et al. (2009) highlights the importance of small group discussion in realization which states that “reflection comes from interaction” (p. 254). Students who are known to have emotional imbalance might find a source of relief from reflective group discussions. Discussing topics related to experiences such as overcoming a struggle, one’s hardest decisions, and character reflection from a specific short fiction would widen one’s understanding of his peers. It would help if the teacher would incorporate a humanistic approach during small group sharing. It was known that humanistic approach, which generally encourages emotional literacy classes, “can improve children’s academic scores” (Bentham, 2002, p. 34). A good follow up of the activity would be reporting about the group’s generalization (through drawing symbols, making a short poem, presenting a summary of what they have discussed, or singing a jingle) through a group representative or the group as a whole, if needed. Although classroom management might be at risk of having small group discussions, a clear set of tasks to be done by each group would lessen disruptive noise. The teacher should also act as a facilitator by checking the improvements of each group while the discussion is ongoing. Part III: Synthesis The challenge of the teachers is not concentrated on what to teach to their students, rather, it is more of how to deliver certain topics in a way that the class would not be a “one man show” of the instructor. Student centered approaches are encouraged in modern day classrooms, where the curriculum gives emphasis of the heart of the educational system. In the rise of the factors which may hinder effective learning, the task to employ effective learning becomes more challenging. Some teaching strategies would not be as effective in the modern generation of learner, however should not be removed from the options of teaching strategies. The conceptualisation of modern teaching strategies aids in addressing the novel needs of today’s learners. Although it should not be assumed that there is a specific strategy fitted for all learners with their learning styles, careful integration of a strategy to meet the needs of different learning styles is encouraged. For instance, show and tell can be a venue for visual and auditory learners to showcase their abilities while case studies and small group discussions can be of benefit with linguistic learners. For children with special conditions but are not considered to be learning disabled like dyslexic individuals, oral presentations and discussion would be effective. In order to maximize the benefits of these strategies, it is important for the teachers to set responsibilities (as opposed to term it as rules to avoid pressure for the student’s part) so that each is involved in the activity and no one would be alienated from the group. It is essential to let the students feel that they ‘belong’ and they are not alone in their endeavors in learning. Conclusion Teaching strategies are created not to become as a Bible for teachers but rather as a guide in facilitating learning. The challenges of the teachers range from the external and internal perspectives of education where students are (1) varied in terms of capabilities and limitations. Even in a “homogeneous class,” where students are classified according to their IQ, uniqueness in learning strategies is still evident; (2) in dealing with children with special needs, it is a paramount necessity to know the nature of their condition, following the traditional “know your students” principle. This does not only apply to teachers of special education but also to educators handling the mainstream classroom, as regular students also have individual personalities; 3) the term “effective strategy” is not true to all students. Learning strategies should coincide with appropriate teaching strategy, and in doing this, teachers should have varied activities which would cater to the student’s learning preference. Above all, teacher’s attitude towards the students counts the most. In educating “problem children” and children with special needs, it is important for the teachers to present a comfortable aura; these children would need someone who would make them learn in the lightest way possible. Presenting an approachable and gentle image would help in the act of teaching and classroom management as the student’s respect would be gained and consequently, be able to control behavior. References Anonymous, n.d., What is dyslexia? [Online] Available at: http://www.dyslexiahistory.com/ [Accessed 08 February 2011]. Anonymous, 2009. MP brands dyslexia a ‘fiction’. BBC News, [internet] 14 Jan. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7828121.stm [Accessed 08 February 2011]. Bentham, S., 2002. Psychology and education. New York: Routledge. Brantley, D.K., 2006. Model of scaffolded instruction. [Diagram] (Article illustration). Cohen S.B. & Bolton, P., 1993. Autism: the facts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dacey, L.S. & Eston, R., 2002. Show and tell: representing and communicating mathematical ideas in k-2 classrooms. California: Math Solutions Publications. Deforges, C. & Abouchaar, A., 2003. The impact of parental involvement, parental support, and family education on pupil achievement and adjustment: a literature review. Canada: Queen’s Press. Goodman, L., 1990. Time and learning in the special education classroom. New York: State University of New York. Grant, J., 2002. Learning needs assessment: assessing the need. BMJ, 324(7330), pp. 156-159. Hanson, G.R., Venturelli, P.J., & Fleckerstein, A.E., 2006. Drugs and society. Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Hebb, D.O. & Minshew, N., 2004. Scientists discover biological basis for autism. Medical News Today, [internet] 30 Jul. 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Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002379 [Accessed 08 February 2011]. Rudy, L.D., 2009. What is autism? [Online] (Updated 03 Mar. 2009) Available at: http://autism.about.com/od/whatisautism/a/whatisautism2.htm [Accessed 08 February 2011]. Shuttleworth, M., 2008. The bobo doll experiment. [Online] (n.d.) Available at: http://www.experiment-resources.com/bobo-doll-experiment.html [Accessed 08 February 2011]. Stanford University, 1994. Teaching with case studies. [Newsletter] Winter 1994 Stanford: Stanford University. University Associates, n.d. The process of experiential learning. [Diagram] (Article illustration). Waldman, J. et al., 2008. Improving children’s attainment through a better quality of family-based support for early learning. Great Britain: e Centre for Excellence and Outcomes in Children and Young People’s Services (C4EO). Winter, J. & Hughes, M., 2009. Improving primary mathematics: linking home and school. New York: Routledge. Appendix A Figure 1: The process of experiential learning (University Associates, n.d.). Appendix B Figure 2: Fishbone diagram (Lizzy P., 2008). Appendix C Figure 3: Role of teacher as facilitator/ “model of scaffolded instruction.” (Campione, 1998 as cited in Brantley, 2006) Read More