Applied Theory Articles - Essay Example

? Topic: Applied theory essay Lecturer presentation Article Beyonce set to join headlines at Glastonbury festival This article is about popular culture and it depicts Beyonce Knowles and her intended performance at Glastonbury. Besides Beyonce and her husband Jay Z, the article talks about other popular bands such as U2 and its lead singer Bono and Coldplay, the major artists expected to perform at the summer music festival in Glastonbury (Topping, 2011: 15). From this article, the emergence of the popular culture in form of music can be evaluated by considering theories of industrialization and of cultural studies. Popular culture is a broad term that incorporates common aesthetic or life practices in qualitative and statistical dimensions (Arnold, 1964:31). However, modern day theorists regard popular culture as a common tradition that has arisen in the modern times and it differs from folk tradition because it is mass-produced and different from high life because it is consumed in mass (Arnold, 1964:32). From this article on Beyonce, it is apparent that popular culture has undergone a lot of transformation from the last century. The current popular culture is characterized by extensive use of the mass media to publicize the events and elaborate organization by the artist and event organizers. Gans (1974:61-62) defines popular culture as an epitome of the society, reflecting the transformations occurring in the society. According to Giddens (1979:29), European and American societies underwent profound transformation in the 18th and 19th centuries. These changes resulted to massive social reorganization especially in the western European spheres where many people moved to work in urban areas in the emerging industries. Transformation from the rural peasantry to mass production in industries not only influenced the economic aspect of the workers, but their culture took a different turn (Giddens, 1979:49). Arnold (1964:85) noted that industrialization also brought with it capitalism in addition to increased interactions and mixing of diverse cultures. A combination of these factors in addition to the strenuous activities in the industries resulted to creation of a homogeneous society, with shared experiences across the regions. In addition, the increasing social density in the community and division of labor due to capitalism accelerated creation of distinct social classes, especially at the middle class level. Archer (1995:116-125) argues that a combination of capitalism ideology and its austere administrative structure resulted to increasing literacy levels especially to the middle class creating a formidable social, economic and cultural hegemony that changed the popular culture immensely. In this regard, capitalism resulted to sudden change in power that eventually caused social differentiation in the society. Archer (1995: 19) argues that the raise of the popular culture does not only involve a large group of individuals, but people who have high level of organization pertaining to their tastes and preferences. This class plays a very critical role in the cultural industry that has developed to meet the artistic aspirations of the middle class. Another influential factor in the middle class towards the popular culture is the high literate levels. According to Archer (1995: 49), the increasing levels of literacy in the middle class resulted to more economic empowerment that lead to accelerated social differentiation that enabled the people to realize new possibilities and discover new and limitless dimensions of their lives for exploration. Therefore, the middle class did not wish to be just machines working in the emerging industries for survival, but as beings with another dimension for fun and recreation. The high culture was not initially intended for entertainment, but it provided the middle class with opportunities for expressing their frustrations, achievements, joys and aspirations in their working places. Burke, (1978 b: 113) noted that the emergence of the novel for instance resulted from the need of the middle class to express their daily lives and aspirations. On the other hand, leisure and entertainment developed as new experience that was initially limited to the upper middle class level but later, it became available to every person in society. In this respect, theorists of industrial influence on social differentiation affirm that industrialization played a crucial role in development of the popular culture, with the middle class playing a major role (Burke, 1978a: 71). Just as the industries were producing goods in mass, the culture industry also resorted to mass production. However, initial target market of high culture industry was the upper middle class, but mass production presented them with the challenge of appealing to the public or retreating to specialized production for their own interests (Burke, 1978b:36). Because of this challenge, the elites resorted to investing in culture by creating relevant infrastructure and supporting the now popular culture that has enriched and created celebrities such as Beyonce and Jay Z who are idolized in the article. This article shows an advanced popular culture that has developed into an influential segment of artistic vibrancy. It demonstrates the celebrity status of the artists and the immense influence they have on the general population. Beyonce is referred in the ‘as the queen of R&B’ and her image and talent is widely posted in the mass media for the public view. Her artistic talents and achievements are highly commercialized and publicized in the mass media (Topping, 2011). Therefore, popular culture has magnified the abilities of artists regardless of their social background to great riches and influence through the mass media. Cultural studies theorists contend that popular culture developed as a form of resistance to the dominant culture (Arnold, 1964: 65). This assertion is valid considering that the elitists in the society were initially involved in producing art targeting the upper middle class. However, it is apparent that the high culture failed to meet the needs of the majority that was being fulfilled by mass production of cultural products. In this case, popular culture resulted from the experiences of the local people that involved consumption of mass produced commodities. Article 2: ? 9000 fee could be the norm, students warned The article is about the impending fees increase to all undergraduate students studying in the United Kingdom. The university administrators of the elite higher institutions in the country propose that undergraduate students should pay a maximum fee of ? 9000 per year beginning from 2012.This represents an increase of ?1000-?2000 on the standard fee charged by the universities in the country per year. According to Vice Chancellor of Leeds University, the increase would ensure that the institutions maintain their status as the centers of academic excellence and boost their outreach programs such as offering bursaries and scholarships (Vasagar, 2011). While proponents of the increase do not foresee a change in social composition of students in the universities, the proposal is likely to discourage students coming from poor economic backgrounds to pursue higher education in the country. Consequently, deputy leader of Liberal Democratic Party proposes that the minimum fees payable to universities should be set at ?6000 per year (Vasagar, 2011). This article highlights the conflict between people of two different classes in the United Kingdom‘s higher education sector. The situation in the United Kingdom higher education sector can be explained using the ‘conflict theory’, that borrows from Karl Marx view that society as a structure comprises of different classes where the conflict between them brings transformation in the very society (Giddens, 1979;51). Marx ideology used property ownership as criteria for dividing people in the society into three classes. These included the landowners, bourgeoisie (property owners) and proletariat (the working class) (Adelman & Cynthia, 1967:25).Though the main area of conflict during industrialization was between the working class and the factory owners, Marx argued that material struggle between the two classes brought changes in the society (Rummel, 1977:63). In this case, the working class would profit from changes that bring equality while the wealthy class rejected such transformation that would make them equal with the workers. Conflicts in the Marxian theory originated from industrial plants and they eventually entered the mainstream society perpetuating class-consciousness that forms political forces in the process (Giddens, 1979:92). Since capital determines the political authority, the bourgeoisie class uses it to ensure security of their property and establishing social relations (Archer, 1995:126). According to Archer (1995:127), relations between different classes are political and in capitalistic societies, the bourgeoisie control the affairs of the country. In addition, this class possesses the authority of determining utilization of the state power and distribution of national resources. Borrowing from Marx ideology of class conflict, Dahrendorf identifies utopian and rationalist approaches as the main factors that bring conflict or stability in the society (Archer, 1995:17). According to Dahrendorf theory, utopian approach stresses on establishment of stability through use of authority while rationalist emphasizes on conflict and resistance, which brings change in the society. This results to two social classes of people in positions of authority and those under authority. The conflict arises from oppressive tendencies of the people in authority in their attempts to establish order in the society on those without power (Rummel, 1977:83). In this regard, conflict between classes arises from dictatorial domination by the people in leadership position upon those who are in subordinate position. From this article, the university administrators are in the authority and the students do not possess power to determine the amount of fees they should pay for their undergraduate studies. The university authorities argue that fee increment would enhance the status of the university and promote service delivery. On the other hand, the public is against the fee increment to a maximum of ? 9000 (Vasagar, 2011). Though the universities in question are not private property, Rummel (1977: 39) argues that changing the ownership or management of an entity does not make any difference as far as locus of control and subsequent class struggle is concerned. Therefore nationalizing universities does not eliminate the conflict between those in authority and the public (students) since the nationalized institutions are still controlled by bureaucrats, given authority by the state to manage the establishment. Karl Marx assertion that conflict between classes brings changes in the society is very true in this case. The first change is the government initiative through the ministry of higher learning to enforce appropriate mechanism in higher learning that will ensure that students from under privileged sectors of the economy get access to higher education in spite of the projected fee increases. Another change is that the universities are considering subsidizing fees on unpopular programs, restructuring the courses and seeking alternative ways of enhancing their appeal. These changes would definitely result to diverse social dynamics. However, these initiatives and changes are aimed at perpetuating the system so that the university authorities and the government can continue having an upper hand in the higher education sector and gain socio-political support in United Kingdom. References Archer, M. 1995. Realistic social theory: the morphogenetic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Adelman, I,& Cynthia, T. 1967. Society, politics and economic development. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press. Arnold, M. 1964. Culture and anarchy. Cambridge: CUP aBurke, P. 1978. Popular culture in early modern Europe. New York: Sage publishers bBurke, P. 1978. Rethinking popular culture: contemporary perspectives in cultural studies. Berkeley . Focus Publishers Gans, H. 1974. Popular culture and high culture: An analysis and evaluation of tastes. New York: OUP. . Giddens, A. 1979. Central problems in social theory: Action, structure and contradictions in social analysis: London: MacMillan. Topping, A. 2011. Beyonce set to join headliners at Glastonbury festival. The Guardian. Feb 9, p 15. Rummel, R. 1977. Understanding conflict and war: Conflict in perspective. Beverley Hills: Sage Publications. Vasagar, J.2011. ? 9000 fee could be the norm, students warned. Leeds Vice Chancellor backs maximum charge. The Guardian, Feb 11. Read More