Improving Parent-Educator Relationships for Rural Special Education - Essay Example

 Improving Parent-Educator Relationships for Rural Special Education Abstract In an article published in a quarterly journal, Trussell, Hammond and Ingalls (2008) argue that special education professionals have a responsibility to involve parents in formulating programs and strategies in educating exceptional children, especially in rural areas. This generalization was based on a survey of numerous studies that closely looked into parent-educator relationships in rural school-based special education classes. Since both laws and professional codes of ethics require parental participation in intervention, teachers must take a step further in ensuring that this mandate is regularly put into practice. Summary As the individuals most involved with special children in the countryside, parents ought to participate in initiatives that help formulate effective strategies in special education. However, real experience shows that this rule is not completely fulfilled due to three reasons: First, parents still have to exert effort in going to school when the lack of resources prevents them to do so. Second, inadequate school facilities prevent parents and teachers from accurately gauging the effectiveness of every special education strategy developed during meetings or one-on-one consultations. And perhaps more importantly, other special education professionals such as development psychologists still come from faraway places, thus posing barriers in terms of establishing firm connections with the rural community and depriving locals from learning more about dealing with special children. As a result, relationships between parents and special education teachers are not deep and unequal at the expense of the former. Since educators tend to ignore parental involvement and are inconsistent in applying strategies that are usually pre-determined, parents find intervention education and relevant laws hard to understand, with the lack of flexibility in using every distinct method. No wonder, parents tend to have negative interactions with school personnel, thinking of the latter as having a deeper knowledge base and therefore are more authoritative in intervening with exceptional children. Indeed, special education professionals have failed to fulfill their ethical responsibilities. But the authors emphasize that it is not yet too late for them to work in increasing the awareness level of parents. To ensure that the roles of both sides are clearly delineated, teachers must take the initiative in being sensitive about the structure of special education teams and in reaching out to the parents. In holding parent-educator meetings, time and place is a crucial factor; such meetings should allow the two parties to work together and interact in a common venue. Conclusion Effective special education programs are the result of the collective efforts of all stakeholders. Without parents in the circle, educators and members of the larger community will not be able to develop authoritative special education intervention programs since these lack ‘humanness,’ with no bases on real-life experience. In the rural setting, since parents are on the underprivileged side, educators and other special education professionals are supposed to go the extra mile in making them involved in developing strategies for educating special children. The article reviewed has clearly articulated the abovementioned message. Since this is more of a survey of previous literature, it is suggested that future studies concentrate on the erring side, the educators, for a fairer assessment of the whole special education process. Using a multi-method approach (i.e., employing both qualitative and quantitative research methods) will help generate reliable information regarding the respective roles of teachers and parents in providing quality education for special children, as well as in applying intervention strategies to help such children cope with the learning environment. With the rise in the number of special children in general education classes, today’s teachers are confronted with the challenge of meeting the needs of such exceptional students. From this realization, Jenkins and Yoshimura (2010) demonstrated how professional development will play an integral role in helping teachers acquire basic knowledge and skills in special education. Summary The journal article is centered on the unresponsiveness of school administrators to the training needs of general education teachers as regards dealing with special children in a classroom setting. In particular, the authors cited four important needs: updates of legal requirements for special education; one-on-one interaction with the student, required skills for each disability and approaches in teaching. As a result, teachers felt ill-prepared and not self-confident in meeting such needs – a factor directly related to the level of teaching ability. Existing literature presented that professional development can help a lot in developing teaching skills to help special students meet academic standards. As activities under this program are evidence-based, collectively planned, address long-term goals and can be done informally, they have a significant advantage over traditional inservice programs that are usually formal and limited to addressing legal requirements. The case study on Sunshine Elementary School attests to the benefits of professional development when applied to general education teachers with special education training needs. Ms. Lee, the school’s student support coordinator, worked directly with the teachers in determining how to seek out relevant information in understanding the needs and strengths of special education students. In response to the teachers’ agreement to use cost-effective research methods, Ms. Lee developed easy-to-implement research briefs that were issued weekly for six consecutive weeks. The results of the professional development activity were appreciative. Teachers cited the readability and handiness of the research briefs, as well as the helpful suggestions presented therein. It was later found out that teachers were eagerly open to such activities and were willing to research beyond the facts presented in the research briefs. To evaluate and check if the suggested practices were indeed applied, Ms. Lee had to conduct classroom observations. While time-honored activities are said to be indispensable in continuing teacher training, educators must welcome and apply methods that are modern, more engaging and goal-oriented such as professional development. The case of Sunshine Elementary School is an evidence of how such an activity (in the form of research briefs) has raised the level of enthusiasm, and in effect the confidence, of teachers in dealing with exceptional students. Conclusion The authors are commendable for using the case study approach in presenting and supporting the arguments for professional development. However, it would have been better if two case studies were presented: one focused on a school with a small population and the other on a school with a large population. This would check the reliability of the program’s effectiveness. Future research should also look into actual observations of students and their performance before and after the professional development activity is held. Finally, the authors are correct in pointing out the appropriate timing for the activity since the activity was conducted at a time when the school was preparing for the statewide assessment. Further studies must be conducted probably at the start of the school year for a more veritable evaluation. Reference Jenkins, A.A., & Yoshimura, J. (2010, May/June). Not another inservice! Meeting the special education professional development needs of elementary general educators. Teaching Exceptional Children: 36-43. Using Functional Behavioral Assessment to Prevent Behavioral Problems in Special Children Name Course Name of Instructor Date of Submission Abstract Special children displaying negative behavior attracts attention within the classroom, thus disrupting the entire learning process. As such behavior serves a function for the student based on the surrounding environment, Ryan, Halsey and Matthews (2003) suggested the usage of Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) as a multi-method strategy that can solve and prevent the problematic behavior of exceptional children. Summary Intended to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of behavioral support for students, FBA has become the professional standard for special children with disruptive behavior in at least seven states across America (O’Neill et al., 1997, cited in Ryan et al., 2003). The method, mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1997, involves gathering information on a specific behavior and forming hypotheses on its occurrence based on the triggering factors. The evaluation team involves then develops intervention methods aimed at replacing those negative behaviors with favorable ones; such methods are subsequently evaluated for reliability. FBA largely depends on three factors: the antecedents, or the events within the classroom prior to a student’s display of undesirable behavior; the consequences, or the events resulting from said behavior; and the setting events, or other indirect occurrences that may have contributed to the display of behavior. A student executes an undesirable behavior either to get something desirable or stay away from an undesirable event. Using the four-stage decision-making model prescribed in FBA, the study concentrated on the case of Violet, a grade one student who displays off-task behavior in class in terms of completing classroom exercises and submitting homework. With Violet’s teacher and the school’s instructional support team working together to evaluate this negative behavior, the case centered on knowing the student’s level of off-task behavior, when this was least likely and most likely to occur, and other related factors. After tracking behavioral frequency and direct classroom observations, it was confirmed that Violet was more off-task when working on independent seatwork at the last 30 minutes of the class due to finding the exercises difficult (the antecedent); as a result, the student was reprimanded by the teacher and laughed at by classmates (the consequence), prompting her not to finish the whole school work altogether. The evaluation team then used two methods in an attempt to change Violet’s behavior: a “request-for-help” sign that she has to raise whenever the need for homework assistance arises, and a response-cost reinforcement (reward) system for accomplishing tasks. Both methods generated positive change in the student, but with the reward system gaining a more favorable result (i.e., on-task behavior increased up to 80%) as contrasted to request-for-help intervention (40% improvement rate). Conclusion With its flexibility in usage for a variety of negative behaviors and its need for the cooperative involvement of educators and other school personnel, the FBA can be seen as an effective partner in evaluating the relationship of a special child’s disruptive behavior with academic environment surrounding him or her. Gone are the days that only the students should be blamed for their negative behavior or academic performance, and this method could greatly help education professionals on how to make the learning environment more conducive to students. However, the authors correctly pointed out that the FBA method must be seen in the profession of education as a proactive approach to addressing behavioral concerns, rather than being reactive as stipulated in the 1997 IDEA. Reference Ryan, A.L., Halsey, H.N., & Matthews, W.J. (2003, May/June). Using functional assessment to promote desirable student behavior in schools. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(5):8-15. In Defense of Functional Behavioral Assessment to Address Negative Behaviors of Special Students Name Course Name of Instructor Date of Submission Abstract Despite its inclusion in the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) of 1997 as a method to determine the right intervention method for students with behavioral disorders, Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) still lags behind as the preferred early intervention solution of educators for such special students. Nevertheless, Moreno (2010) presents evidence from relevant literature that support the effectiveness of the said assessment process, especially when implemented at the first manifestation of a special child’s problematic behaviors. Summary Unpopular response to the FBA process on the part of education professionals and school administrators is attributed to two major reasons. First, there is a loophole in IDEA which failed to clearly define what constitutes ‘positive behavioral interventions’ as prescribed supportive4 actions for students with negative behaviors. While the law clearly mandates non-coercive support methods as part of an appropriate behavioral intervention plan (BIP), educators are left to decide for themselves when to apply such methods and what specific intervention they should perform. This indifference in the time frame and specific intervention methods in relation to the FBA leads to the second reason, which is the planning and usage of FBA as a late reaction to the student’s situation instead of including the process as an integral part of early intervention. Various researches has indicated favorable results of developing an effective BIP at the onset of a student’s challenging behaviors in reducing its impacts and replacing them with new and preferred behaviors. From this reason, several other barriers to FBA implementation have manifested; these are the educators’ lack of understanding on the process, BIPs that are poorly planned and the lack of cooperative work among the educators and administrators. However, many studies have given credit to the effectiveness of the FBA process as a means to help reduce, if not perhaps fully change, the negative behavior of concerned students – primarily when used as part of early intervention efforts. The only concern raised on the FBA is the validity and reliability of the process itself, whether it can really generate consistent and positive results when applied to a host of different situations. As regards validity, the point raised was how the FBA’s manner of implementation could affect the method’s accuracy. To answer this, one research (Ingram et al., 2005, cited in Moreno, 2010) checked the validity of FBA-based intervention against non-FBA-based intervention, using two student-participants as bases of evaluation. The investigation revealed that the former method proved to have reduced negative behaviors in the long term versus the latter. On the other hand, to test the reliability of FBA, another study (Fox & Gable, 2004, cited in Moreno, 2010) used a behavior-measuring instrument as required by the FBA in determining the consistency of results based on the various features of the target behavior from the perspectives of different observers. Provided that the instrument has demonstrated a high degree of reliability as used in a previous study, the effectiveness of the FBA can only be reinforced with the educators’ full understanding of the whole process. Conclusion It has been proven that the FBA is indeed an effective method to use in deciding for the method of intervention to use for students with challenging disorders. For it to succeed though, barriers on the proper understanding of the process must be addressed. Other researchers must involve multiple case investigations and tests, as well as various kinds of behaviors. These would help in determining whether FBA can be really applicable to all kinds of disorders within the behavioral spectrum of special students. Reference Moreno, G. (2010, March). No need to count to ten: Advocating for the early implementation of the Functional Behavioral Assessment in addressing challenging behaviors. Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties, 15(1): 15-22. Function-Based vs. Non-Function-Based Intervention Plans: Which is More Effective? Name Course Name of Instructor Date of Submission Abstract Educational research has established the direct connection of a positive learning environment with the low percentage of problem behaviors among students. Guided with this vision, schools are increasingly realizing the importance of the functional behavioral assessment (FBA) approach in creating behavior intervention plans (BIP) to solve the problems of students with negative behaviors. In determining FBA’s effectiveness as compared to intervention plans that were not function-based, Ingram, Lewis-Palmer and Sugai (2005) concluded that the former generated greater improvements in students with disruptive behaviors. Summary The study is triggered by the dearth in research on gauging the effectiveness of FBA in changing students with problematic behaviors. While some amount of evidence gives credence to the efficacy of function-based intervention versus the trial-and-error approach, these were found to be lacking. Most of the existing literature has focused on using FBA in helping children with developmental disorders; as for those with behavioral problems, research has only focused on cases of students with mild or otherwise no problem behaviors. In addition, due to the flexibility of the approaches used in FBA, researchers did not reach a consensus as to which processes should constitute an ideal BIP based on function-based intervention. In an attempt to establish a direct relationship between the nature of intervention and the reduction in negative behaviors, the authors used two male grade six students (Carter and Bryce) in a Pacific Northwest middle school as subjects of comparison – both with high-degree behavioral problems that impacted on their academic performance and have never been involved in any FBA. Carter suffers from a ‘not-engaged’ problem behavior in a mathematics class, while Bryce is dealing with an ‘off-task’ behavior in his science lessons. Usage of the FBA in reducing the impacts of negative behavior on Carter and Bryce both generated positive results, in contrast to non-function-based intervention. For Carter’s non-engaged behavior, he was given 10-minute breaks whenever he felt tired in dealing with difficult exercises, as well as academic support when he raises hands for help; this intervention reduced the problem behavior to 6% median from the baseline rate of 49%. Ordinary correction of Carter’s inappropriate behavior, meanwhile, prompted an immediate increase of occurrence to rates that match baseline levels. On the other hand, in determining FBA’s effectiveness in improving Bryce’s off-task behavior in working on boring science work, statistics generated were highly variable considering that Bryce takes medication for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and there are days when he did not take his medicine. Nevertheless, while the level of problem behavior immediately dropped using the non-function-based approach (from 61% to 38%), the rate increased on the long term; as for the FBA-based approach, problem behavior also decreased at once (to 10%) but remained stable for quite some time. Conclusion Results of evaluations on Carter’s and Bryce’s respective cases have proven the greater effectiveness of utilizing the FBA approach in correcting unpleasant academic behaviors against non-function-based intervention. The authors, however, must be praised in pointing out the limitations of the study, including the danger of generalizing the results across other similar cases. As it appears, future research may delve into the replication of comparing FBA and non-FBA interventions on students in other school grades and ranges of behavior, changing the intervention strategies within one school day, and trying the strategies in other possible learning environments (e.g., field trips, distance learning systems or home tutoring sessions). Reference Ingram, K., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai, G. (2005, Fall). Function-based intervention planning: Comparing the effectiveness of FBA function-based and non-function-based intervention plans. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7(4):224-236. The Effects of Positive Behavior Supports in an Urban High School Name Course Name of Instructor Date of Submission Abstract With the limited literature on the application of positive behavior supports (PBS) in a school-wide setting, Bohanon et al. (2006) ventured in a study that involved PBS usage in an urban high school. The research aimed at knowing whether the range of strategies applied were indeed effective or not for improving academic achievement, social competence and safety in a learning environment, while decreasing the occurrences of problem behaviors (Office of Special Education Programs, 2002, cited in Bohanon et al., 2003). Results gathered showed that PBS application led to a fair degree of success on the part of the high school. Summary To serve as the study’s framework, the authors decided to utilize the PBS self-assessment system developed by the Office of Special Programs (OSEP). The strategy involved eight unique steps, from stating the purpose of positive intervention to tracking the negative behavior of students through formulated record-keeping procedures. Results of introducing PBS would necessitate the modification of the assessment plan over time, as needed. Particular issues to be addressed in this research were reducing the at-risk behaviors of high school students and improving the level of academic performance both on students and the school in general, both of great importance. Using the Chicago Public Schools, one of the largest school districts in the United States, as the research setting, the study involved a multi-method approach that spanned three phases within three consecutive school years (2001-2004). The quantitative side entailed behavior measurements using the School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET) and the survey on Effective Behavior Support (EBS), as well as analysis of available data on referral on student disciplinary cases and general survey of the behavioral climate. On the other hand, interviews with different stakeholders of the school, document reviews, and comprehensive field notes from observations in learning activities formed the qualitative aspect of the research. At the end of school year 2003-2004, results showed that the school’s targets were met in six out of the eight categories evaluated using the SET, with the rates going beyond the 80% average except in the areas of meeting behavioral expectations and eliciting district-level support. Apparently, change in students’ behavior is not readily available for all cases, whereas support from district administrators for academic improvement may be considered as a perennial problem in most schools. Discipline referrals have also decreased from 4 cases/day/month/100 students in September 2002 to less than 1 case/day/month/100 students in June 2004. As regards the perception of PBS implementation, interviews and surveys generated an increase in positive perception in both school and classroom levels, but a decrease for non-classroom and individual levels. This shows that room for improvement in the implementation must focus on the individual needs of students because this after all is the focus of PBS methods. However, what is commendable is the fact that the perceived priority for improvement increased across all levels – an indication of the willingness of all sectors of the school to involve themselves in cooperative work to improve the learning environment. Conclusion The study has emphasized the viability of using PBS to improve a school’s learning environment regardless of the socioeconomic setting. Future studies, therefore, should focus on evaluating PBS implementation on urban schools vis-à-vis rural or countryside schools. In the end, the authors cited two factors on which high schools should concentrate as regards making the school free from negative student behavior: the assurance of implementation across all stakeholders and the consistency of school policies. Reference Bohanon, H., Fenning, P., Carney, K.L., Minnis-Kim, M.J., Anderson-Harriss, S., Moroz, K.B., Hicks, K.J., Kasper, B.B., Culos, C., Sailor, W., & Pigott, T.D. (2006, Summer). Schoolwide application of positive behavior support in an urban high school: A case study. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(3):131-145. How to Deal with 12 Common Mistakes in Classroom Behavior Management Name Course Name of Instructor Date of Submission Abstract Barbetta, Norona and Bicard (2005) reviewed 12 common mistakes in classroom behavior management that educators must address in order to preserve a healthy and conductive learning environment for the students. The list of suggestions to correct these mistakes is by no means complete, but these practices are applicable to all kinds of students – whether they are normal learners or those with exceptional needs. All suggestions were based on the following beliefs: (1) teachers can change the behavior of students; (2) the students execute negative behaviors for a reason; (3) preventing unnecessary behaviors is still the best way to manage them; and (4) behavior management is a collective effort of students, parents and other education professionals. Summary The first mistake involves looking negative behavior by its attributes, rather than the purpose and results of executing such a behavior. Related to this is the second mistake, in which teachers ask students on why they misbehaved, when in fact, students would find it hard to tell why they did it. Both mistakes call for a more careful examination of the misbehavior’s occurrence to determine its root cause and function using the Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) method. Mistake no. 3 calls for educators to using alternative approaches in managing negative student behaviors, instead of sticking to a single approach and repeatedly trying it for its effectiveness. The next mistake points out teachers as the very ones violating good classroom rules, while this supposedly produces significant effects on changing student misbehavior. The fifth to eighth mistakes focus on the procedural mistakes in treating the undesirable behaviors of students. Mistake no. 5 calls on teachers not to treat all misbehaviors as related to lack of motivation, but instead consider some as due to a lack of appropriate skills due perhaps to slow reception levels in learning. The lack of preparation for planning and transition is the focus of the sixth mistake, which must be addressed by providing sufficient amount of time in planning to shift, for example, from one lesson to another. Ignoring disruptive behaviors entirely is discouraged as the seventh mistake, and must be instead dealt with by proper discernment of the case and reinforcing the right behaviors for the students. The eighth mistake, on the other hand, reminds educators not to overuse and misuse time-out strategies; instead, time-outs must be done out of the regular classes in order to give students the chance to interact with fellow students. The ninth mistake points out that student expectations must be clear and implemented consistently, as these may cause frustration on the part of the learners and thus may further the chances of demonstrating misbehavior. Finally, the 10th to 12 mistakes focus on some common misconceptions in classroom behavior management. The 10th mistake cites the common view of teachers as the only classroom managers; whenever, needed educators must seek help of the students, parents and administrators in effectively managing the learning setting. For the 11th mistake, education professionals must view effective instruction as a way to mitigate student misbehavior, as a stimulating learning environment has been proven to encourage greater student participation. Finally, teachers must not treat any undesirable student behavior as an attack on teaching skills. Eliminating such behavior should be seen as a normal professional responsibility. Conclusion The authors presented a simple yet realistic list of mistakes that teachers must address in a classroom setting. Because of the simple language used therein, the article may also be construed as some sort of a list of guidelines for teachers that are easy to implement and can definitely improve the learning environment, making it conducive for all kinds of learners. Reference Barbetta, P.M., Norona, K.L., & Bicard, D.F. (2005, Spring). Classroom behavior management: A dozen common mistakes and what to do instead. Preventing School Failure, 49(3):11-19. The Problem with Social Skills Training and Its Application to Students with Emotional, Behavioral and Learning Problems Name Course Name of Instructor Date of Submission Abstract Through the years, social skills training (SST) has become accepted as a way to help exceptional students with emotional-behavioral disorders and learning problems improve the level of social competence. However, in concentrating to help children stay away from negative social behaviors such as aggression and rejection, among others, SST has failed to address some of the more important problems. Maag (2005) argued that to help improve the effectiveness of SST, the usage of replacement behavior training (RBT) may be considered. Summary A review of existing literature on SST presents three major findings. First, such a type of training addresses only behaviors that are said to be socially invalid. Second, the training techniques used do not directly address the needs of the youth for acquiring the necessary social skills. Finally, despite the focus of SST, peer acceptance remains at a low level among most students involved in the training. One factor seen in the ineffectiveness of SST is the training’s conceptual problems. Training sessions usually directed to teaching the necessary social skills, rather than the ones immediately needed by the students. Not surprisingly, SST failed to assess the individual deficits in social skills because of being viewed as too complicated and time-consuming. Also, SST tends to single out the individual with social needs, instead of addressing the need in a group setting. There is even the need to customize SST depending on the response levels of different kinds of students; research shows that those who are neglected benefit the most from social skills training. SST-focused research also presented three general findings on the method’s flaws. Because of the complications in addressing the need for social skills, most studies under this category have open-ended conclusions, which actually mean there is no closure for issues to be addressed. Most of the studies also pointed out that occurrences of SST were inconsistent on the steps to train students lacking in social skills, using a combination of techniques which is unfounded. Finally, researchers cited at least two assessment-related problems: the disconnect between the training given and the student’s specific needs, and the failure to establish the relation between target social behaviors and the resulting outcomes. In the end, Maag (2005) suggested using RBT as a related method to SST in assessing the social competencies of students. Unlike ordinary functional assessment which focuses on addressing and reducing occurrences of inappropriate behaviors, training on replacement behaviors may be viewed as an extension of SST in that both methods encourage the students to display the preferred behaviors based on what society views as correct. As a result, RBT may help positive replacement behaviors to be developed on the part of the student, which in turn becomes acceptable social behavior. Also, several other studies proved that RBT can help reduce the degree of aggressiveness. With this possible improvement in SST implementation, future researchers would be able to formulate generalizations on the effectiveness of the method used. Conclusion While there have been recommendations presented in numerous research on improving the SST process, it is indeed impossible to make generalizations on the different situations because of the method’s arbitrariness and misguided focus on students’ social needs. Being the method that closely resembles SST, RBT may well be the solution in helping children attain social competence. This, however, will still depend on how the whole concept of the method will be changed to target the improvement of social skills among special children. Enough knowledge of the educators on both RBT and SST is also crucial in ensuring that the method will be effective in gauging socially acceptable skills. Reference Maag, J.W. (2005). Social skills training for youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and learning disabilities: Problems, conclusions and suggestions. Exceptionality, 13(3):155-172. Read More