Theories and theorists with the causes and responses to problematic behaviour in children - Literature review Example

?Part Compose a brief review of literature discussing theories and theorists with the causes and responses to problematic behaviour in children. (1500 words) There are many theories and approaches which can be used to explore the causes and responses to problematic behaviour in children. One of the most basic debates revolves around the respective importance of the features and qualities that a child is born with, and those that are acquired from the environment as a child matures in the company of other people. This is known as the nature/nurture debate (Eysenk, 1997, 305-309) and a number of psychologists have devised experiments to try and work this out, so that more can be understood about how a child learns to interact with others, absorbing the rules of society and finding ways to adapt to the demands of school. Clearly if scholars can understand how behaviour is acquired, then they have more chance of finding ways to intervene if problems arise in this process. Behaviourism is one of the most well-known theories of child development. The Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) conducted some very famous experiments on animals to research the way that learning takes place. He was primarily interested in physiology and his experiment with dogs showed that a random connection between a certain sound, and a reward of food, meant nothing to a dog at first, but with repeated association of the two, the dog could be trained to respond to the tone, in anticipation of the food, so that when the tone sounded, for the dog would salivate, even though there was no food in the room. Pavlov noted that this reflex action occurred spontaneously in the dog, whenever the stimulus was given, and this was called conditioning and it provided the basis for the theory of behaviourism. An example of the enduring truth of these theories can be observed in some typical behaviours in the context of education: “… our actions may condition inappropriate as well as appropriate behaviours, such as the automatic lack of attention to the lesson the moment the bell rings.” (Woollard, 2010, p. 12) Further work on this line of thinking was done by American psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949), based on the way that cats learn to solve puzzles. Thorndike focussed on repetition of tasks, showing that the more frequently an action is required, and the more often a reward is offered for completion of this action, the more likely it is that the animal will learn the action. The implications for child behaviour are that learning should be provided in well structured, rather repetitive ways, with consistency in the reward system so that the child over time learns to fit in with what is expected of him. The psychologist John Watson (1878-1958) used the tools of scientific experimentation to demonstrate the validity of behaviourism: “Based on his research on higher order animals, Watson strove to bring to psychology the same measure of objectivity that marked some of the other traditional sciences such as physics and chemistry.” (Hart and Kritsonis, 2006, pp. 2-3) The empirical method, based on experiments and data analysis were a major part of Watson’s behaviourism and he is credited with establishing the credibility of Psychology as a discipline. Continuing in this same vein, B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) developed these ideas using rats initially, and then drawing parallels with child development. He devised experiments in which rats were required to push levers to obtain food, and this was called operant conditioning, because the rats had to actively operate the equipment to achieve the desired result. The important factor which he applied to child behaviour, was that rewards and punishments could be used to condition children to behave in certain ways. Skinner’s behaviour modification theories hold that positive reinforcements, such as praise and encouragement will work more effectively than negative reinforcements, such as punishment, because the associations of past experiences will gradually persuade the child to choose the path that leads to the rewards. He acknowledged also private stimuli which can be effective in influencing a child’s behaviour in the classroom: “… behaviour can be modified and learning can be enabled through reward; that reward can be internal and arise from satisfaction or satiation of a drive that is perceived by the learner but not seen by the observer.” (Woollard, 2010, p. 16) In contrast to the behaviourist approach, there is a second major approach to the study of human behaviour called the psychodynamic approach. This is based less on observing actual behaviour, using animals in the laboratory to work out basic connections, and much more on an attempt to see what is going on inside a person’s head. The ideas of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) started off this branch of psychology. Unlike the behaviourists, Freud believed that actions and behaviours have causes which come from within the person. He emphasises the importance of unconscious processes which are the cause of a child’s behaviour and assumes that behaviour problems occur when there are unresolved conflicts contained within the unconscious mind. It theorises that a child’s emotional development, and his earliest experiences as a baby will affect his later life, drawing links between negative early experiences and behavioural problems later. Another feature of Freud’s psychodynamic approach is a focus on the child’s sexual development, proposing a series of stages known as oral, anal, phallic, latency and general which have to be learned in the correct sequence. Although some of the ideas of Freud have been discredited by later scholars, many of these ideas still influence educators today. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) built on the ideas of Freud to explore what motivates problem behaviour in children, and investigated ways of applying this knowledge to the context of kindergarten and school learning. (Ellenberger, 1981, p. 589) Later researchers such as Maurice Balson and Jeannette Harrison developed Neo-Adlerian theory which “believes that students become disruptive when they grow discouraged… attempts to prevent this discouragement by building co-operative relationships in the classroom, and advises… that you should diagnose which of four goals is motivating the behaviour” (Porter, 2000, p. 8) These goals are defined as attention, power, revenge or withdrawal, and the point is to look behind the behaviour and try to find ways to meet the child’s emotional need through other ways which are less disruptive. This method is designed for everyday use in the classroom, while interventions such as referral to a child psychologist and carefully targeted play therapy are methods used to apply psychodynamic theories in this context. A third approach tries to incorporate elements of behaviourist theory and also some elements of a more rationalist viewpoint. It is called cognitive-behavioural theory, and one of its first proponents is Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura (b. 1925). An interest in cognition started in earnest much earlier with The Swiss scholar Piaget (1896-1980). He observed that normal development of a child from birth until school leaving age is characterised by various stages, and it is theorized that behavioural difficulties can occur if a child does not successfully find his or her way through these essential stages. Piaget, for example, identifies four essential stages and labelled them sensorimotor (birth to two years of age), preoperational (from 2 years to 7 years of age), concrete operational (from 7 years to 12 years) and formal operational (from 7 years to adulthood), (Piaget, 1954) This approach focuses on the physical and mental abilities of the child, and shows how advancing capabilities allow the child to acquire more and better skills. It emphasizes the way that a child must interact with the environment in order to develop cognitive schemes and patterns which help him to learn about the world and operate successfully within it. Many later theories of learning depend on the early insights of Piaget. Behavioural problems in very young children can often be attributed to immaturity which will just resolve themselves with time as the child progresses through the early learning phases. Following the work of Bandura and others, it was realised that many factors influence the way a child behaves, and that some of these come from the environment, and some come from within the child. Even more importantly, these elements can interact with each other, reinforcing certain behaviours, and they occur in a social context. Bandura realized that children have an inherent ability to modify their own behaviour, which he called self-efficacy without even the threat of punishment or promise of reward, and proposed methods of response to behaviour problems that empower children, through teaching them coping skills so that they can make choices of their own. (Evans, 1989, p. 16) His work is a middle way between behaviourism, with its focus on outside stimuli, and cognitive theories with their emphasis on mental processes, and it takes account of the social environment as well. There is no one single cognitive-behavioural theory, since it can be seen as a continuous line leading from pure or classical behaviourism at one end to pure cognitive theory at the other. Some cognitive-behavioural responses to behaviour problems such as behaviour management programmes, lean more towards the behavioural end of the spectrum. Bill Rogers describes a system for embedding behaviour management in to all aspects of school life, using thematic headings which stress conformity to a number of set conventions such as “rights, rules, responsibilities and routines.” (Rogers, 2007) There is a behaviourist insistence on rewarding compliance, but also an emphasis on the kind of intervention which “allows students to make a connection (in their minds and experiences) between their behavioiurs and outcomes” through the use of techniques such as “extended one-to-one conferencing, counselling or follow through, or supervision of consequences” (Rogers, 2007, p. 162) Increasingly in contemporary discussions of behaviour problems in children there is an eclectic approach: drawing from a number of different theories, most of which could fit under the umbrella of “cognitive behaviourist” theories. Part 2. Through comparison, analyse and critically evaluate two of these theories on behaviour. (2000 words) The behaviourist theory is perhaps the most unified of the different theories on behaviour. It has the advantage of being very scientific and clear, attempting to set out in numbers and facts an explanation of the processes that a human being goes through when deciding on any particular action. There is ample evidence, too, that behaviourist assumptions are borne out in day to day experience with children when teachers witness children responding well to reward systems. The rules and conventions of school condition students to behave in certain acceptable ways, and without this basic level of compliance, schools just would not function. Most schools have a discipline policy which is based on a modernized version of behaviourist principles: good behaviour is rewarded with privileges and status in the school, while problem behaviour invokes various sanctions ranging from “demerit marks” which trigger parental involvement, detentions, curtailment of various freedoms and even in extreme cases exclusion from school. The behaviourist element of such systems is clear in the way that they demonstrate to children how certain consequences follow their actions. The school system is a form of conditioning: “If problem behaviours have been learned in the first place, they can be altered by applying the principles of conditioning. Even if some behaviours are due to inherited or biological factors, it should still be possible to learn other behaviours that could take their place.” (Long et al., p. 349) The addition of operant conditioning, which emphasizes the child influencing what happens by making key decisions, enhances classical behaviourist models, and leads children learn to a wider range of options and experience what happens when they try them out. There is also evidence that a purely behaviourist approach can deal with some of the effects of problem behaviour, for example by cutting the offender off from other children and intervening to stop further occurrence of any particular actions, such as verbal or physical abuse. In summary, therefore, behaviourism is a useful theory which assists teachers and planners in creating a suitable learning environment, with predictable routines and consistent systems of positive and negative reinforcements. It has the advantage of being well understood and relatively simple to implement in practice. There tends to be a rather authoritarian style to this kind of approach, but many parents and children actually like this, and see it as an aid to maintaining focus and establishing a steady base for learning. A major disadvantage of the behaviourist approach is that it does not address some of the deeper issues that are causing the problem behaviour in the first place, and it does not take account of the diversity of the school population in terms of background, maturity, and extent of behavioural problems. One reason for this could be the over-emphasis of the earlier proponents of behaviourism on studies with animals. The way that animals behave is not necessarily the same as the way humans behave, and so there are dangers in generalizing from simple tests with rats or dogs. Human beings live much more complex lives, and the variables present in human society are greater than those present when a cat tries to solve a puzzle. Behaviourism does not take full account of emotional issues within the child, or of social factors which may cause or exacerbate problem behaviour. Some behaviour problems are not easily catered for in a one-size-fits-all approach to behaviour management. It may be simpler to operate, but it lacks the refinement that is necessary to gain a deeper understanding of what motivates individual children to behave in problematic ways. Some tailoring of behaviourist approaches can be achieved with individualized contracts, where cognitive aspects are added to embed the ideas in the student’s mind, (Kruger, 1990, pp. 65-70) or with an emphasis on self-management, where students are encouraged to internalize the rules so that they can monitor, evaluate, reinforce and instruct themselves (Mace and Shea, 1990) but these are moving away from a pure behaviourist mode, and drifting into mixed methods. A significant weakness in behaviourism is also the fact that it is not an ideal tool to use when the initial problem is caused by inherited or biological qualities. Some conditions may even be made worse by a focus on changing the way a child behaves, especially if this is done in an authoritative way, resulting in great distress and no improvement in the behavioural problems. There appears to be an increasing prevalence of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children. (Bowen and Jenson, 2003, pp. 35-37) A wide range of theories are applied to these disorders, ranging from the administering of drugs targeting a change in brain activity to some proactive behaviour management techniques, there is little consensus on how effective they all are. A pure behaviourist approach is not likely to work in these situations, because the child may have little control over instinctive reactions to teacher instructions, for example. Conditioning through repeated exposure to stimuli will simply not work. Some mixed approach which engages cognitive functions and deals with the management of the child’s at times uncontrollable moods is more likely to produce results in terms of managing the actual behaviour and identifying strategies which the child can learn to apply himself over time. The psycho-dynamic approach is much better at digging into the deeper issues which cause children to have behavioural problems. Although some of Freud’s initial ideas about child development were disputed almost from the beginning, the work of his daughter Anna Freud resulted in a number of theories relating to the way a child defends itself against harmful experiences, and these have become a fundamental part of modern educational psychology; Many of the causes of behavioural problems are emotional, and to do with factors outside the school, and they are well beyond the ability of the child to cope with in a large group situation. Interventions like the use of special educational needs sectioning are designed to address these individual needs of a child who is displaying problem behaviour. By setting up a support system which attempts to look behind the reasons for behaviour problems, treating each child as a unique individual, governments have ensured that elements of the psycho-dynamic approach can be brought into play when needed. An interesting offshoot of psycho-dynamic theory is found in the work of John Bowlby, who developed further some of the emotional dimensions of a child’s development. His famous writings on attachment help to explain how children mature through different relationships with people and objects in their lives. (Bowlby, 1940, 1969 etc.). By creating new attachment possibilities in schools, or if needed in therapy, there is hope that children who missed out on vital transition phases in earlier years can catch up in their development and overcome the behavioural difficulties that often accompany children who have had poor parenting, especially from the mother who forms the first and most important “core” attachment. Later expansion of Bowlby’s ideas has suggested that “not just the mother can be an attachment figure, that ‘good enough’ parenting is key, and relationships throughout life contribute to psychological health and wellbeing.” (Cullen, 2011, p. 89) There are some demographic groups of children which appear to warrant particular attention due to circumstances such as extreme poverty, difficult home circumstances, immigration, language status etc. Aronowitz notes for example that there can be specific adjustment problems for immigrant children and that “immigrant children present more often with behavioral disorders and, in adolescence, identity conflicts, and less often with acute psychiatric dysfunction.” (Aronowitz, 1984, p. 243) Psychodynamic models can help to illuminate the emotional stresses that affect immigrant children, such feelings of loss and displacement and find ways of integrating them into their new location. This kind of special circumstance is not in itself a problem, but it can certainly be a cause of behavioural problems if the school environment is not geared up to provide the relevant emotional support. Child psychologist appointments, or one to one and small group coaching can be used to supplement the child’s curriculum, and these interventions can be targeted at the emotional and psychological factors that may be influencing the child’s ability to learn effectively and adapt to the disciplines of school. This is undoubtedly a major advantage of psycho-dynamic approaches. There is, however, evidence that many children have to wait too long for assessment, and some have statemented needs for which there is sufficient funded response. Psychodynamic theories assume that there is sufficient time to diagnose what could be a complex problem, possibly involving other family members, or facing up to difficult or traumatic events in the child’s environment. Highly qualified experts are expensive, and their therapies often take many months, which is probably why this approach is only taken in the more severe cases of behaviour problems. Ideally, they should be engaged sooner rather than later in a child’s educational career, but this is unfortunately not very realistic in practice. Some educationalists experimented with the psycho-dynamic approach in their creation of private schools which pioneered child-centred teaching. Famous examples in the UK include Homer Lane’s “Little Commonwealth” based on models from the United States and A.S. Neill’s “Summerhill” which rejected some of the more authoritarian and formal traditions of the mainstream schooling systems of the time. There were four “basic tenets on which the success of their work was based: 1. The extension of “unconditional affection” to all pupils by staff 2. The encouragement of ‘freedom of expression’ for pupils 3. A commitment to the development of self-discipline through ‘self-government’ or ‘shared responsibility’ 4. A commitment to a psychoanalytical orientation in their work.” (Cooper, 2000, p. 17) These methods were very progressive when they were first introduced in the mid-twentieth century, and there are on-going debates about how appropriate they are for mainstream public schooling. One of their aims is to prevent many behaviour problems from arising in the first place. By providing an open and co-operative learning environment, with as much freedom as possible, many conflict areas are avoided. In theory, teachers engage with the students in a role which requires more emotional intelligence, and in turn this engenders responses from the students which also encompass emotional dimensions. Behaviour which in a standard school would result in disciplinary intervention can be tolerated or even celebrated in an experimental school. A major disadvantage of these experiments in school design and teaching methodology is that they tend to take place under charismatic leaders and are somewhat ideologically biased. It is possible with more recent developments in the UK that the academy structure will allow more of these experiments, and possibly a better environment for children experiencing behavioural problems. There is a risk, however, in some of these experimental approaches because they may not work on a large scale and within the funding regimes that tend to characterise public education. In summary, then, it is clear that both behavioural and pscho-dynamic theories have something to offer when dealing with problem behaviour. We owe a lot to their early pioneers in terms of providing concepts and a technical vocabulary to explain child behaviour, and they have provided the basis for much of current practice in schools. The most useful for immediate and practical application is the behaviourist model, since it achieves small but important changes in a large number of children in a short time. When supported with good school systems, behaviour modification programmes can transform collective behaviour in a classroom environment. The use of treats, stickers, praise, or even just the creation of achievements in which a child can take pride and pleasure, are all mechanisms which we owe to the behaviourist way of looking at child development. Their use eases the daily interactions within schools, and succeeds in creating steady routines. For more deeply entrenched behavioural problems, however, psycho dynamic theories offer the prospect of deep level investigation, and individually tailored remedies which take account of the diversity of problems and variables that occur in children who attend schools today. References Aronowitz. 1984. Bowen, J. and Jenson, W.R. 2003. 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Psychology as a behaviourist views it. Reprinted in R. J. Huber, C. Edwards and D.H. Bownton (Eds.) Cornerstones of Psychology: Readings in the History of Psychology. Asia: Thomson Learning Incorporation, pp. 180-191. Wearmouth, J., Glynn, T. and Berryman, M. 2005. Perspectives on Student Behaviour in Schools: Exploring Theory and Developing Practice. London: Routledge. Woollard, John. Psychology in the Classroom: Behaviourism. London and New York: Routledge. Read More