Motivating Secondary Schooling Children - Assignment Example

Motivating secondary schooling children of the School] of the Introduction Inspiring to become independent and motivated learners is an important task to any educator. It takes more than just standing in front of a class delivering an oration to become a good educator. Educators are aware of the need to transfer knowledge in a manner that the subject is delivered with enthusiasm as to influence students to learn. Furthermore, it would appear that students are most inspired and motivated to learn when lecturers seem to be caring and have genuine concern for learners. "Education is, at least, the endeavor to get people to do things they could not previously do, to understand things they did not previously understand, and perhaps, to become the people they did not expect to become" (Sockett 1988, p. 195). Sockett's statement expresses a basic premise about the role of motivation: It leads to possibilities for fostering the development of students' potential or "life chances" (Mclnerney & Van Etten, 2001, p. x). In some rare cases the educator is lucky enough to have a group of students who all arrive with enthusiasm for the subject. They have well developed study skills and a strong aptitude towards learning. In these instances the task for the educator is to maintain this enthusiasm and to utilize it to ensure these already advanced students continue to achieve high levels of success. However, the circumstances for educators are often quite different. Their study skills may be underdeveloped and the academic learning may be less than impressive. It is for this reason that an educator should be armed with the knowledge and skill to develop or even create motivation. A central theme of this paper is that teachers have a primary responsibility in education to help students cultivate personal qualities of motivation that can give them resources for developing aspiration, independent learning, achieving goals, and fostering resiliency in the face of setbacks. Perhaps this responsibility is even more important in the context of the motivational problems and challenges faced in the home and in schools in the early 21st century. The research on the issue will include reviewing the literature on motivation and discussing of teaching approaches that stimulate students' motivation. The research paper will also focus on subject interest and draw upon the practical experiences of teachers faced with students whose level of interest in their subject matter is low. Student's discouragement to learn is not uncommon and arises widely throughout the educational system. During the years of compulsory education, the lack of motivation is a matter of constant concern. Students are faced with a wide ranging curriculum designed to provide a well rounded education. Amongst the myriad of research subjects there will be some favored topic/subjects, while other subjects may not be that interesting to an individual student. Successful teaching will almost inevitably require the adoption of a different approach to the teaching and learning activities undertaken. Definition and overview of motivation Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of behavior, especially goal-directed behavior (Maehr & Meyer, 1997). Motives are hypothetical constructs used to explain why people are doing what they are doing. Motives are distinguished from related constructs such as goals (the immediate objectives of particular sequences of behavior) and strategies (the methods used to achieve goals and thus to satisfy motives). For example, a person responds to hunger (motive) by going to a restaurant (strategy) to get food (goal). Motives are usually construed as relatively general needs or desires that energize people to initiate purposeful action sequences. In contrast, goals (and related strategies) tend to be more specific and to be used to explain the direction and quality of action sequences in particular situations (Thrash & Elliot, 2001). Motives, goals, and strategies can be difficult to distinguish in situations that call for intentional learning of cognitive content (such as the content of this book), because optimal forms of motivation to learn and optimal strategies for accomplishing the learning tend to occur together. In the classroom context, the concept of student motivation is used to explain the degree to which students invest attention and effort in various pursuits, which may or may not be the ones desired by their teachers. Student motivation is rooted in students' subjective experiences, especially those connected to their willingness to engage in lessons and learning activities and their reasons for doing so. This book develops the argument that teachers' primary motivational goals and strategies should focus on encouraging students to engage in activities with motivation to learn: That is, with the intention of acquiring the knowledge or skills that the activities are intended to develop. Theories of motivation Attribution theory The first of the theories is the attribution theory. The first point to be emphasized in discussing the attribution theory is that students' perceptions of their educational experiences generally influence their motivation more than the actual, objective reality of those experiences. For example, a history of success in a given subject area is generally assumed to lead a student to continue persisting in that area. However, researchers point out those students' beliefs about the reasons for their success will actually determine continued success (Graham, 1990). Students' attributions for failure are also important influences on motivation. When students have a history of failure in school, it is particularly difficult for them to sustain the motivation to keep trying. Students who believe that their poor performance is caused by factors out of their control are unlikely to see any reason to hope for an improvement. In contrast, if students attribute their poor performance to a lack of important skills or to poor study habits, they are more likely to persist in the future (Reference please). The implications for parents and teachers revolve around the importance of understanding what students believe about the reasons for their academic performance. Parents and teachers can unknowingly communicate a range of attitudes about whether ability is fixed or modifiable and their expectations for individual students (Armes, 1992). Behavior Reinforcement Theory Most contemporary views on student motivation emphasize its cognitive and goal-oriented features. These conceptions represent considerable evolution from earlier views, which were influenced heavily by behavioral theory and research (much of it done on animals rather than humans). Early behavioral views depicted humans as responsive to basic drives or needs, but otherwise relatively passive. As one observer put it, "The behaviorist view was that of a creature quietly metabolizing in the shade, occasionally goaded into action by the hot sun or the lure of a cold glass of beer" (Murray, 1964, p. 119). In explaining how to establish and maintain desired behavior patterns, behaviorists usually talk about control rather than motivation. They speak of using reinforcement to bring behavior under stimulus control. The stimulus is a situational cue that (in effect) reminds learners that performing certain behaviors in this situation will gain them access to reinforcement. If the learners are not able to perform the desired behaviors immediately, gradual improvement toward the target performance level is shaped through successive approximations. Once the desired performance level is established, it is maintained by reinforcing it often enough to ensure its continuation. Any behaviors that are incompatible with the desired pattern are extinguished through nonreinforcement or (if necessary) suppressed through punishment. Much of the culture of schooling reflects the behavioral view, especially grading and report card systems, conduct codes, and honor rolls and awards ceremonies. With respect to everyday motivation in the classroom, behavioral views lead to carrot-and-stick approaches: Teachers are advised to reinforce students when they display desired learning efforts and withhold reinforcement when they do not (Alberto & Troutman, 1999; Schloss & Smith, 1994). Behavioral models that emphasize manipulation of learners through reinforcement are still emphasized in applied behavior analysis treatments, especially in school psychology and special education. However, most behavioral models have evolved into more complicated forms that include at least some consideration of learners' thoughts and intentions. Meanwhile, cognitive models of motivation have developed that place more emphasis on learners' subjective experiences such as their needs, goals, or motivation-related thinking. These cognitive models of motivation include the concept of reinforcement but portray its effects as mediated through learners' cognitions. That is, the degree to which task engagement can be motivated by reinforcer availability depends on the degree to which learners value the reinforcer, expect its delivery upon completion of the task, believe that they are capable of completing the task successfully, and believe that doing so in order to gain access to the reinforcer will be worth the costs in time, effort, and foregone opportunities to pursue alternative courses of action. Self-determination theory This motivational theory of particular importance for parents and teachers of secondary school students is self-determination theory. The theory describes students as having three categories of needs: a sense of competence, of relatedness to others, and of autonomy. Competence involves understanding how to, and believing that one can, achieve various outcomes. Relatedness involves developing satisfactory connections to others in one's social group. Autonomy involves initiating and regulating one's own actions. Most of the research in self-determination theory focuses on the last of these three needs-autonomy (Reference please). Within the classroom, autonomy needs could be addressed through allowing some student choice and input on classroom decision-making. For young adolescent students, with their increased cognitive abilities and developing sense of identify, a sense of autonomy may be particularly important. Students at this stage say that they want to be included in decision-making and to have some sense of control over their activities. Unfortunately, research suggests that students in middle schools actually experience fewer opportunities for self-determination than they did in elementary school (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Contextual factors that support student autonomy have been summarized (Deci, Vallerand, et al. 1991). Features such as the provision of choice over what types of tasks to engage in and how much time to allot to each are associated with students' feelings of self-determination. In contrast, the use of extrinsic rewards, the imposition of deadlines, and an emphasis on evaluations detract from a feeling of self-determination and lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation. It is important for parents and teachers to recognize that supporting student autonomy does not require major upheaval in the classroom or that teacher relinquish the management of students' behavior. Even small opportunities for choice, such as whether to work with a partner or independently, or whether to present a book review as a paper, poster, or class presentation, can increase students' sense of self-determination. Finally, it is important to recognize that students' early attempts at regulating their own work may not always be successful. Good decision-making and time management require practice. Parents and teachers can help their students develop their self-regulation by providing limited choices between acceptable options, by assisting with breaking large tasks into manageable pieces, and by providing guidelines for students to use in monitoring their own progress. Motivation in the classroom In classroom motivation it is very useful to use the concepts of intrinsic motivation and flow to interpret a range of motivational situations. These concepts apply best when people are freely engaging in self-chosen activities. Usually these are play or recreational activities rather than work or learning activities. Even when students are intrinsically motivated to learn, their learning usually features leisurely exploration to satisfy curiosity rather than sustained efforts to accomplish explicit knowledge- or skilldevelopment goals. Finally, even when intrinsically motivated learning is more goal oriented, it tends to occur under autonomous and self-determined conditions. Unfortunately, these conditions are difficult to establish in classrooms, for several reasons. First, school attendance is compulsory and curriculum content and learning activities are selected primarily on the basis of what society believes students need to learn, not on the basis of what students would choose if given the opportunity to do so. Schools are established for the benefit of students, but from the students' point of view, their time in the classroom is devoted to enforced attempts to meet externally imposed demands. Second, teachers usually must work with classes of 20 or more students and therefore cannot always meet each individual's needs. As a result, certain students sometimes are bored and certain others sometimes are confused or frustrated. Third, classrooms are social settings, so that failures often produce not only personal disappointment but public embar rassment. Finally, students' work on assignments and performance on tests are graded, and periodic reports are sent home to their parents. In combination, these factors tend to focus students' attention on concerns about meeting demands successfully rather than on any personal benefits that they might derive from learning experiences. It is hard to just enjoy an activity and "go with the flow" when the activity is compulsory and your performance will be evaluated, especially if you fear that your efforts will not be successful. Even in classrooms where fear of failure is minimized, both teachers and students can easily settle into familiar routines as the school year progresses. To the extent that these routines become the "daily grind," classroom activities that were designed as means toward curricular ends tend to become ends in themselves. That is, attention becomes focused on what must be done to complete the activities rather than on the knowledge or skills that the activities were designed to develop. It is efficient to make curricular and instructional adjustments that will increase the frequencies with which students experience intrinsic motivation and flow in the classroom. Teachers need to realize that they are not a camp counselor or recreational worker who provides experiences that are enjoyable but not necessarily educational. Nor they are private tutors who can individualize the curriculum to a single learner's needs and interests. Instead, teachers must work with classes of 20 or more students and concentrate on helping them to accomplish curricular goals. These constraints make it unrealistic to adopt intrinsic motivation or flow as the model of student motivation that teachers seek to maintain on an all-day, everyday basis. To motivates students, teachers should provide frequent opportunities for choice and autonomy and to phrase instructions and feedback in ways that downplay control over students, but it will remain true that students are required to come to the class to try to master a largely externally imposed curriculum, and that their efforts will be evaluated and graded. Under these conditions, intrinsic motivation will be the exception rather than the rule. The same will be true of flow experiences, especially for students who are under-challenged and thus bored much of the time or over-challenged and thus anxious much of the time. Even students who enjoy a consistently good match between your demands on them and their current readiness to meet those demands will vary in their desire for flow experiences. Some will prefer the boredom of safety over the risk of challenge. Even those who are more disposed toward flow experiences cannot be in (or seeking) flow continuously because this would be exhausting. It is worth noting that teachers are not the only people who experience constraints on their options as motivators. Most leadership roles (parent, coach, boss, political or corporate executive) are played out in contexts in which supervisees do not necessarily share their supervisors' goals, yet must be motivated to adopt those goals or at least commit to accomplishing the agenda that goes with them. Furthermore, they often must be willing to accept responsibility for accomplishing their portion of the agenda (to specifications), even though they will not be rewarded as generously as their supervisors or even many of their peers. Thus, the aspects of motivational theory and research likely have the most relevance to potential appliers are those involved in motivating people to commit to goals that they ordinarily would not adopt on their own initiative, not those involved in providing people with opportunities to engage in preferred activities. Students' motivation to learn as the teacher's goal If intrinsic motivation is ideal but unattainable as an all-day, everyday motivational state for teachers to seek to develop in their students, what might be a more feasible goal Researchers believe that it is realistic for a teacher to seek to develop and sustain students' motivation to learn from academic activities: their tendencies to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to get the intended learning benefits from them. Motivation to learn differs both from extrinsic, reinforcement-driven motivation and from intrinsic, enjoyment-driven motivation, although it may coexist with either of them. The difference between motivation to learn and extrinsic motivation is closely related to the difference between learning and performance. Learning refers to the information processing, sense-making, and advances in comprehension or mastery that occur when one is acquiring knowledge or skill; performance refers to the demonstration of that knowledge or skill after it has been acquired. Strategies for stimulating students' motivation to learn apply not only to performance (work on assignments or tests) but also to the information processing that is involved in learning content or skills in the first place (attending to lessons, reading for understanding, comprehending instructions, putting things into one's own words). Thus, stimulating students' motivation to learn includes encouraging them to use thoughtful information-processing and skill-building strategies when they are learning. This is quite different from merely offering them incentives for good performance later. The difference between intrinsic motivation and motivation to learn is closely related to the difference between affective and cognitive task engagement experiences. Intrinsic motivation refers primarily to affective experience-enjoyment of the processes involved in engaging in an activity. In contrast, motivation to learn is primarily a cognitive response involving attempts to make sense of the information that an activity conveys, to relate this information to prior knowledge, and to master the skills that the activity develops. Students may be motivated to learn from a lesson or activity whether or not they find its content interesting or its processes enjoyable. Student motivation to learn can be viewed either as a general disposition or as a situation-specific state. As a disposition, it is an enduring tendency to value learning-to approach the process of learning with effort and thought and to seek to acquire knowledge and skill. In specific situations, a state of motivation to learn exists when a student engages purposefully in an activity by adopting its goal and trying to learn the concepts or master the skills it develops. Students who are high in motivation to learn (as a disposition) tend to do these things routinely, as if they possess a motivated learning schema that is triggered whenever they enter a learning situation. Even students who do not have much motivation to learn as a general disposition may display such motivation in specific situations because the teacher has sparked their interest or made them see the importance of the content or skill (Deci et al., 1991). Students who are motivated to learn will not necessarily find classroom activities intensely pleasurable or exciting, but they will find them meaningful and worthwhile, and will take them seriously by trying to get the intended benefits from them. Focus on the Nature and Quality of Motivation, Not its Quantity Motivation to learn refers primarily to the quality of students' cognitive engagement in a learning activity, not the intensity of the physical effort they devote to it or the time they spend on it. For most tasks, there is a curvilinear relationship between motivational intensity and degree of success achieved. That is, performance is highest when motivation is at an optimal level rather than either below or above this optimal level. Furthermore, the optimal level varies with the nature of the task: High levels of arousal maximize performance on tasks that call for extraordinary effort, but lower levels maximize performance on tasks that call for controlled application of refined technique. Thus, it helps to be "psyched up" if your task is to break open a door or win a 50-meter dash, but such high arousal is counterproductive if your task is to sink a putt or make a free throw. (Thrash, Elliot, 2001) High arousal is likely to interfere with performance on activities that call for sustained mental concentration and thought, such as the learning tasks facing students in classrooms. Students are likely to handle these tasks most successfully when their motivation is positive (they are engaged in the task and free from distractions, anxieties, and fear of failure) but not overly high in an absolute sense. They are alert and oriented toward learning, but not "psyched up" or focused on winning a competition or obtaining a reward. (Thrash, Elliot, 2001) In other words, teachers always want to maximize students' motivation to learn, but not necessarily to maximize their total motivation. Similarly, teachers want to maximize successful achievement outcomes, but only insofar as this can be done by maximizing motivation to learn and supplying supportive incentives and rewards. Attempts to increase motivation still further are likely to be counterproductive, especially if they involve inappropriately pressuring students or making them unnecessarily anxious or dependent. We want to develop life-enhancing dispositions in students, not neurotic needs. Stimulating and socializing motivation to learn Much of the motivational advice typically offered to teachers boils down to the following general principle: to find out what topics students want to learn about and what activities they enjoy doing, then build these into your curriculum as much as possible. This is a useful principle as far as it goes; many of the suggestions offered in this paper are based on the notion of capitalizing on students' existing motivation. This is only part of what needs to be done, however. If a teacher confines himself to responding to the motivational orientations that the students bring with them, he will limit his options and fail to capitalize on opportunities to guide students' motivational development in desirable directions. People are born with the potential to develop a great range of motivational dispositions. A few such dispositions appear to be inborn as part of the human condition and can be observed in everyone. Most, however, especially higher level dispositions such as motivation to learn, are developed gradually through exposure to learning opportunities and socialization influences. The degree to which a particular motivational disposition develops, as well as the qualitative nuances it takes on in the individual person, are influenced by the modeling and socialization (communication of expectations, direct instruction, corrective feedback, reward and punishment) provided by "significant others" in the person's social environment. (Thrash, Elliot, 2001) Along with family members and close friends, teachers are significant others in the lives of their students, and thus in a position to influence the students' motivational development. In this regard, it is helpful to view motivation to learn as a schema-a network of connected insights, skills, values, and dispositions that enable students to understand what it means to engage in academic activities with the intention of accomplishing their learning goals and with awareness of the strategies they use in attempting to do so. The total schema cannot be taught directly, although some of its conceptual and skills components can. In addition, its value and dispositional components can be stimulated and supported through modeling, communication of expectations, and socialization of students into a cohesive learning community. Children's development of motivation to learn and related self-actualization motives is especially dependent on modeling and socialization by adults. These motivational dispositions include key insights and cognitive strategies that are learned primarily as a result of sophisticated socialization at home and instruction at school. Students who have not had much exposure to these cognitive aspects of motivation may view school tasks as imposed demands rather than as learning opportunities, and thus engage in them (if at all) with work-avoidant goals and perhaps performance goals, but not learning goals. They will have to be helped to understand and appreciate what motivation to learn means before such motivation can begin to influence their decisions and actions (Alberto, Troutman, 1999). Therefore, in addition to capitalizing on students' existing motivation, teacher is advised to make the best of his opportunities to stimulate and socialize their motivation to learn. In each particular teaching situation, he should try to stimulate motivation to learn the knowledge or skills that the activity is designed to develop. Besides it is advised to bring this motive to the forefront relative to any other motives that may be operating at the time. Over the long run, these everyday motivational efforts should have cumulative effects encouraging students to develop motivation to learn as an enduring disposition. In addition, the teacher can socialize this disposition more directly, using the strategies. Motivation as expectancy value reasoning, often within a social context Much of what researchers have learned about motivation, including implications for teachers, can be organized within an expectancy value model (Feather, 1982; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The expectancy value model of motivation holds that the effort that people are willing to expend on a task is the product of (a) the degree to which they expect to be able to perform the task successfully if they apply themselves (and thus the degree to which they expect to get whatever rewards that successful task performance will bring), and (b) the degree to which they value those rewards as well as the opportunity to engage in the processes involved in performing the task itself. [Note: The word value, used here as a verb meaning to appreciate or see worth in, should not be confused with the noun values, meaning ethical principles or ideals.] Effort investment is viewed as the product rather than the sum of the expectancy and value factors because it is assumed that no effort at all will be invested in a task if one factor is missing entirely. People do not willingly invest effort in tasks that they do not enjoy and that do not lead to valued outcomes even if they know that they can perform the tasks successfully. Nor do they willingly invest effort in even highly valued tasks if they believe that they cannot succeed on those tasks no matter how hard they try. If required to engage in such tasks unwillingly, they are likely to experience negative affective and cognitive reactions. Thus, the expectancy value model of motivation implies that teachers need to (a) help students appreciate the value of school activities and (b) make sure that students can achieve success in these activities if they apply reasonable effort. Unique expectancy value reasoning concerning potential task engagement occurs within each individual, but it is influenced by the social context in which the task is embedded (where relevant). Classrooms are highly charged social contexts that complicate individual students' expectancy value reasoning enormously, for good or ill. Hansen (1989) suggested that students tend to adopt one of four general approaches to coping with classroom tasks, depending on their success expectations and task values. Engaging is likely when students see value in the task and are reasonably confident of their ability to meet its demands. When engaged, they seek to make sense of the task by discovering meanings, grasping new insights, and generating integrative interpretations. The task's unfamiliar aspects are viewed as challenging but are valued because they provide a basis for extending one's understandings. Dissembling is likely when students recognize value in the task but do not feel capable of meeting its demands. They would like to complete the task successfully, but are uncertain of what to do, how to do it, or whether they can do it. These uncertainties threaten their identity and self-esteem, so they pretend to understand, make excuses, deny their difficulties, or engage in other behavior focused more on protecting their ego than on developing task-related knowledge and skill. Evading is likely when success expectancies are high but task value perceptions are low. The students feel confident of their ability to meet task demands but don't see a reason to do so. In response to the grading system and other pressures, they may go through the motions by focusing sufficiently on the task to avoid teacher interventions and perhaps even to accomplish the task goal. However, their attention is scattered, frequently drifting to competing interests such as daydreaming, interacting with classmates, or thinking about their personal lives. Finally, rejecting is likely when both success expectations and task value perceptions are low. Lacking both reasons to care about succeeding on the task and confidence that they could do so if they tried, students in this situation withdraw from the task. Some become passive and psychologically numbed. Others smolder with anger or alienation. Rejecting the task completely, they not only don't engage in it but don't even feel the need to dissemble by pretending to themselves or others that they are capable of meeting its demands. Bibliography: 1. Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. (1999). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill. 2. Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271. 3. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum. 4. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. U., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational psychologist, 26(3/4), 325-346. 5. 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Applied behavior analysis in the classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 12. Sockett H. ( 1988). "Education and will: Aspects of personal capability". American Journal of Education, 96, 95-214. 13. Thrash I., Elliot T. (2001). Implementing cognitive strategy instruction across the school. Cambridge, MA: Brookline. 14. Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81. Read More