The efficiency of teaching - Essay Example

The efficiency of teaching INTRODUCTION: The parameters used till now to gauge the efficiency of teaching are the students’ performance. It is at this point where tests and examinations of multi faceted types have been evolved. This has unfortunately created a dubious atmosphere in which the role of teachers is always to ask and that of pupils to ever answer. This is where the profession erred and went away from natural life style. Van Manen’s caring outlook on teaching profession should be noted here. He assumes that teaching is not only governed by principles of effectiveness but also by special normative, ethical or affective considerations. (Van Manen, 1995, p. 33) While talking about the affective considerations, one can not simply skip the theory of reflective judgement. The three level model of Van Manen’s curriculum development, in which emancipatory ideals are to question and analyse the assumptions, values and presuppositions as a means of interpreting the nature and quality of educational experience requires much attention at this juncture. (as cited in A. Moon, 1999, p. 17) A teacher’s feeling at home in the class room which was considered at the outset as an awkward moves by the author was understood quite effective later as the teacher completely absorbed herself in the situation with her students. (Van Manen, 1995, p. 46) Imagine a little boy or girl asking scores of questions with the parent. Is the kid a teacher and the parent a pupil? The flow of knowledge in this example is undoubtedly from the person who answers. Like that, if pupils in classroom were allowed or even obligated to ask questions, can’t we excel in our pedagogy? A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN TEACHING PROFESSION: The traditional notion that teaching is imparting knowledge in one direction has a long time back faded. Early in 1970s the didactic authoritarianism dispensing instant learning surfaced the point of evolutionary realisation. Many advocates of discovery learning began to see teacher more as observers than as participants in the transactions of classrooms. (Stones and Morris, 1972, p. 52) In conventional teaching methods teachers simply forced the students to be more attentive to acquire knowledge. Experiences on the part of pupils were just assumed leaving a fundamental fallacy in the methods of teaching and instructions. (Dewey, 2007, p.128). Failures in teaching methods were ascribed to other factors social, cultural and environmental imbalances. While acknowledging and emphasising the importance of reflection, Dewey made some additional stress for the need of some basic traits and characters such as sincerity, involvement and responsibility. This opened a flood gate to make several reforms in teaching methods and models. Dewy’s steps of reflection emanating from perplexity to deciding on a plan of action could thus be considered the start of such endeavour. (Van Manen, 1995, p. 34) Accepting the process of dialogue made teaching take a double way flow; that is, teaching is learning too. The Modular Programmes described by Manion et al (1996), with a stress on one-to-one discussion in planning pathways, setting targets and action planning are the typical ones of this interactive teaching methods. On realising that teaching is not simply giving away a sermon or lecturing, the teaching community began to aspire for professional efficiency. Reflective practices began to play an important role in education and pedagogy of teaching. Although we can not be generic in comprising the entire field of ‘education’, the field of teaching invariably is supported by reflective practices. I have to be precise because the term education covers scientific fields that rely more on empirical evidences. Lack of empirically based theory underlying strategies to promote reflection and factors that influence its use in translating learning into practice in fields like health care may be the road block. (Lowe et al, 2007) But such blocks are not apparent in other fields of education. Arts and pedagogy of teaching are in contrast nourished well by reflective practices. A PRE-ANALYSIS LOOK: Before analysing the reflective practices in teaching, it would be apt to go through a few definitions of ‘reflective thinking’. Reflective thinking is a thinking that is aware of its own assumptions and implications as well as being conscious of the reasons and evidence that support the conclusion. (Lipman, 2003, p. 26) John Dewey defined reflective thinking as “an active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends”(as cited in Renee J. Martin, 1995, p. 167) Reid (1993) presents a motivational definition of reflective thinking as “a process of reviewing an experience of practice in order to describe, analyze, evaluate and so inform learning about practice.” Van Manen defines reflection in terms of a means of mental action that distances the person from events in order that they may be viewed in a more objective manner. (as cited in A. Moon, 1999, p. 17) Many scholars and educationists considered problem solving and value conflict as aspects of reflective thinking. (Totten & Pedersen, p. 79)) Effective reflective practice is transgressive of stable and controlling orders, according to Gillie Bolton (2005, p. 2).In his view it leads even cogs to decide to change shape, place and reconfigure the whole system. This assertion of Bolton is true to the level of reflexivity’s natural capability. Reflexivity in fact injects confidence in men especially when the outcome of reflexivity is disseminated. Thus reflective practice is the utmost guiding and valuable tool for teachers who are supposed to infuse not merely the curriculum but also the whole sea of knowledge among students. Various theories have been evolved about reflective practices. Authors like van Manen (1990) consider reflective practice to be recollective form constituted in a thought or action that is already lived through. But theorists like Schon (1987) considered it to be constituted in action at different time frames. Several dimensions like reflection-in-action, reflection-on-action, and reflection-for-action, reflection-in and on – action were evolved fixing reflexivity at appropriate time frames. These seemingly conflicting concepts are in some way settled in the views of Fry et al, (2003, p. 215). They assume reflection to play a pivotal role in transforming and integrating new experiences and understanding with both previous and existing knowledge. The universally accepted conception that reflective practices are part of teacher’s learning processes in the classroom context is gradually shifting to a perspective centred approach in a broad sense embodying deliberation, collaboration, scaffolding and distributed expertise in learning communities. (Denicolo, 2005, p. 178) A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: Although the research perspectives on reflective practices do not in any way challenge the inevitability of it, the dimensions and models are under constant rigorous research. As the purpose of this essay is to discuss and critically analyze the current research perspectives on reflective practice and evaluate my own personal teaching experiences, I place a few perspectives of reflective practices in areas like scientific research and health profession education. I choose a purely health related subject of clinical neurophysiology to analyse where reflection came in to prominence. The point of enlightenment in the research assumes a reflective approach. Abend et al (2008) were left to study the incidence and characteristics of acute seizures in children undergoing therapeutic hypothermia following pulse less cardiac arrest. Their hypotheses that (i) EEG seizures were common during therapeutic hypothermia, (ii) background patterns would evolve during re-warming and hypothermia and (iii) background abnormalities would associate with survival and short-term outcome were to be tested empirically. The research conducted by the team landed on a finding that the earliest EEG results might not be useful for prognostication. However the team found that the results of their research suggested more severe abnormalities were associated with worse survival and short-term outcome. This had finally placed in concluding that studies correlating continuous EEG patterns with short- and long- term outcomes were warranted. Here comes the reflection. When all the three of their hypotheses were in conformity with their findings, the next door to be knocked was identified as EEG patterns with long-term outcomes. While accepting unequivocally the universal fact that every research leads to another, one must necessarily admit that reflection works remarkably at the point of enlightenment where to step next. As the current population of pupils are more aware of sophistication, an educator now has to be necessarily a body of knowledge. (Roy, 1970) Teaching –Learning arena too is admittedly covered by this contention of Roy. A mentor while constantly developing his individualised teaching pattern to end in achieving the student’s learning outcomes would naturally find it a convenient experience in using this tool of reflective practices. The inclination of many mentors in NOT failing the students at the onset stage is in fact an outcome of their reflective approach. It would be a better practice for teaching faculty too, who generally focus on the knowledge base and the academic profiles of the students and are reluctant to the above said mentors’ inclination, to adopt reflective attitude at least to some extent. A consensus between the mentor and the teaching faculty would provide a nice outcome in student assessment. (Duffy, K. & Watson, 2001; Watson H.E., & Harris B. 1999) In case of studies on arts, culture and other related disciplines the role of reflective practices is very much high. This is because the studies and research on disciplines other than science and technology allow the pupils to use sufficient quantum of their imagination. The chance of using imagination is very much restricted in technological sciences that rely chiefly on empirical evidences. Stephen Wilson (2003, p. 20) asserts that while art practice and theory are being radically reshaped by the activity of attempting to link arts, literature, politics, sociology and technology in an inter disciplinary search for relevant concepts and frameworks , the techno scientific world in general has not deeply engaged in the concepts from cultural studies. The self-delusions of technologists about the autonomy they have in their research, the underlying meta narratives shaping their behaviour and the ultimate cultural ramification of technology are pointed out by the author in support of his views on mental disequilibrium between artists and scientists. (p. 23) Assumptions are the only outlet for science and math students to gauge the situation of current reading and research. Then again the endeavour starts in proving their assumptions leading to various hypotheses, concepts and theories. The findings derived from continuous reading and research lead to evolve new vistas in the particular fields of research. But students of arts and culture have unlimited access to wield their imagination. Here again I am forced to use an example from science. Thomas et al (2006) demonstrated that imagination impaired human memory system and affected behavioural pattern. However, the findings of Garry & Polaschek (2009) in which imagination-based techniques in self-help and clinical contexts were proved to be creating practical implications. I do not cite these two scientific findings to bring out any intra-contradiction, but I prefer to establish that both the research teams have neared a typical uniformity whereby memory and imagination are inter-related. Garry’s assertion during the studies of imagination inflation that imagining counter-factual event can make subjects more confident that it actually occurred can be taken as an indication of more frequent usage of imagination inflation as a robust tool in psycho therapy. (Paddock et al, 2009). LATERAL THINKING: Lateral thinking/thinking ‘out of the box’ is just the outcome of reflective practicing. Lateral thinking is a tool comprising a set of techniques and approaches designed to find radically new approaches to problems. Paul Sloane (2003) calls this as ‘approaching from side-wards rather than from the front’. In fact, it is a function of knowledge and imagination bringing out discovery, exploration and innovation. (McGill, 2003, p.81) As scores of alternative options are available through lateral thinking, the author emphasises expansive thinking processes sans judgement. Donald A. Schon (1993: 139-140) effectively proved this in his observation of a group of product development researchers who were left with the job of improving the performance of a new paint brush made with synthetic bristles. ‘A paintbrush is a kind of pump’- an observation of the one of the researchers attracted the whole team towards innovation. Schon used this paintbrush-as-pump to elicit his theorising of metaphor. However, this stands an evidence for lateral thinking. The three levels namely, (i) reflection to reach given objectives, (ii) reflection on the relationship between principles and practice and finally (iii) reflection incorporating ethical and political concerns as envisaged by Goodman (1984) along with the elucidation of six stages leading to the culmination stage of framing action via (i) selecting a critical incident to reflect upon, (ii) observing and describing the experience, (iii) analysing the experience, (iv) interpreting the experience and (v) exploring alternatives (as cited in Melanie Jasper, 2003, p. 7 & 12, ) is a nice guide to be followed while practicing reflective practice. THEORIES EMBODYING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: The main theories that underlie teaching models are single-loop learning and double-loop learning. Single loop learning contains no questions as to the changes made in the course of learning. However, changes are brought into force with predetermined rules and conventions. The effectiveness in this model of learning-teaching process is relatively less than in double-loop learning, in which changes attain a form of transformation with investigation and questioning being permitted to occupy considerable niche. Actions towards changes are carried out after examining and altering the governing variables in this double-loop learning. (Argyris, 1999, p. 68) Learning derived from the consequences of interpretations in the double-loop learning model comprises the ‘action science’ involving a clinical intervention. This intervention harnesses assumptions-in-use and espoused assumptions. (Smith & Lyles, p. 30) David Kolb’s learning theory consisting four stages of experiences, reflective observations, abstract conceptualisation and finally the active experimentation leading to new experiences thereby completing the cycle is a generalised learning theory. (Clawson, p. 36) Here we can sense a sort of smudging between the stages; that is, the second stage of reflective observation could not be separated from the first stage of experiences aloof. Each and every moment of experiences are concurrently observed with reflection along with an imminent sense of ‘quit any moment’ alertness. As such the third stage of abstract conceptualisation looses its intensity if a quit signal is sparked and consequently the final stage of active experimentation is almost nil. However, the derived experience completes the cycle without actions. Albeit the reduction in stages the derivation of experience is not hampered which could be taken note of as an individual’s capability to cope with the pressure and to be mentally alert in active atmosphere. (Ross et al, 1997, p. 250) It is important to bring out a crucial point at this juncture that a theory guided practice need not be scared while comparing the most accorded reflective practice if proper intent to the approaches is kept in focus. The rigorous researches and criticisms on Schon’s work have neared a demarcation between reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. The non-contentious nature of Schon’s reflection-on-action is condoned by the narrowness in which Schon applied the hypothesis. The timeframes underlying these two operational hypotheses play a crucial role. Time-bound factors like anticipation and imagination in the process of reflection naturally are found to lay their impact on the outcome of reflection. Reflection-on-action is reflection on an experience after the event where as reflection-in-action is reflecting on experiences while it is happening. We are thus prompted to make a comparison with Kolb’s stages of experiences. The reflection-on-action could well be equated with the abstract conceptualisation formulated by Kolb and the reflection-in-action with the second stage of reflective observation. When we try for further emulation, Dewy’s steps of reflection leading to the decision making skill on the ‘plan of action surface’. Van Manen’s ‘active contemporaneous type of reflection’, is an analogous stage to the stage of reflective observation by Kolb. As such the ideologies of reflection were the same with all the four researchers, namely the Dewey, Schon and Kolb and Manen. The explicit distinction between theory and practice is well established by Argyris (as cited in A. Moon, 1999, p. 50-53) who have landed on a definitive finding that in real situations, practice is guided by theory in use. Moon emulated a network of knowledge, which is composed of espoused theory and the idiosyncratic processing of the espoused theory as a result of experience in practice. He ascribed this net work of knowledge to the new understanding of cognitive structure. When the theories formulated are harnessed with the knowledge in practice leading to the formation of fresh theories form a cycle of learning. Kolb’s experiential learning theories are thus explained in this context. The verbatim reproduction of John and Freshwater (1998, p. 214) explains this more clearly: The process of uncovering new meanings ‘from the ground up’, in contrast to ‘seeing’ from the ‘top down’ through the lens of discipline defining theory, creates an inherent dissonance between the latest developments in reflective practice and the movement to theory guided practice as a means of demonstrating a unique approach to both knowledge and practice. The theory of reflective judgement: Lara proposes her thesis that stories can create links between language and moral imagination understood as disclosive imagination. She considers stories as effective vehicles of reflective judgement. (Lara, 2007, p.57) This theory could well be incorporated in the field of teaching profession too as most of the students – in fact, the entire human race - are prone to pay much heed to stories. Reflective / impulsive theory: Problem solving capabilities of pupils are classified under these two theories. Dorn (1999, p.68-69) asserts that reflective children favour a direct and assertive approach while impulsive children prefer a more yielding and passive approach to a reasoning task. Dependant/ independent theory emulated by Dorn suggests field independent in colleges are attracted to math, natural science and engineering while filed dependents are attracted to humanities, social science and education. These two theories are useful in student assessment areas. BENEFITS OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: Reflective practice has well been realised to be an apt tool for improvement and development in health profession. It improves the quality of care; it enhances the collective and individual professional development and chiefly it changes the power relationship between the academics and practitioners who generate and control knowledge by broadening. (French et al, 2008, p. 6) Bulman (2004, p. 114) found reflective practice when combined with supervisory style sought to develop knowledge based on experience. In his book on Self Regulated Learning, Schunk describes that self reflective practices allow monitor, evaluate and adjust their performances during learning. Adjusting strategies based on assessment of their learning progress helps in achieving the goal of learning and identifying the activities well suited to the situations. (Schunk, p. 153) CONCLUSION: Although some professional efficiencies and intricacies of education are aspired to be developed technically using various models including psychological models, the core of education system is simply to cultivate a student rather than to dump info and knowledge into his/her brain. The modalities adopted in achieving this goal are put under rigorous research in order that new vistas are ever being evolved. Reflective practice in pedagogy too has been analysed in depth and breadth by several scholars. I have here attempted to go still further in this field of teaching where reflective practice is still viewed with an eye of either contempt or alienated connotations. The analyses of various research scholars’ works reveal that it is not actually the reflective practice that makes people falter, but the lack of will to follow the practice. Thus reflective practice when clubbed with a propensity to handle new approaches would fetch better results in teaching profession especially in terms of bringing out a good citizen from schools and colleges. = the end = Reference list – Austin Ross, Stephen Joseph Williams and Ernest J Pavlock, 1997, p. 250, “Ambulatory care management”, Cengage Learning, ISBN: 0827376642 Ayanna K. Thomas, Deborah E. Hannula and Elizabeth F. Loftus, 2006, “How self-relevent imagination affects memory for behaviour”, Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 21:1, 69-86 Charles M. 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