Developing Creative Thinking: Foreign Language Teaching in Chinese Primary School - Essay Example

Developing creative thinking: Foreign language teaching in Chinese primary school I. Introduction Nowadays, infusion of creative thinking skills in language class has been highly concerned by more and more foreign language teachers especially for young learners. Creativity in primary class could be defined as three terms: ‘teaching creatively’, ‘learning creatively’ and ‘teaching to develop creativity’; furthermore, it could present an enquiry process of generalization of new information, application of strategies into a variety of contexts and combination of different insights to produce new things (Desailly, 2012, pp. 16-18). In China, although government starts to realize the importance of innovative experts from which needs to trace back to the elementary stage of primary education to foster creative thinking of children. However, due to exam oriented way of teaching, students usually tend to accept traditional pedagogy of foreign language in which is based on behaviorism to keep learners at the level of boring memorizing and repetitive practice on language learning (Dai and Liu, 2004). Cheng (2010) also argues that Chinese students are more likely to obey rules and highly respect teachers’ instructions instead of own interest and willingness under influence of ‘Confucian Heritage Culture’ (p.121). As a result, subjective initiative and creativity are usually neglected which lead to negative consequence that learners could not possibly apply foreign language as practical tools and may find it difficult to conduct self-directed study. Therefore, foreign language teaching in Chinese primary school would have necessary needs to be changed in such circumstances. Since it is golden age from around 7 to 12 years for Chinese primary students to learn foreign language, it seems more vital for their teachers to develop creative thinking skills in pedagogy design in order to built higher cognitive level for these foreign language young learners. According to Piaget’s stages of development, Beetlestone (1998) states that children who are around 7-11 years old starts to think and reason things that they have experienced. Therefore, it seems that it is essential for them to learn how to learn foreign language by teachers’ appropriate guidance rather than direct input. In addition, creative classroom would be efficient way to intrinsically drive learners to study harder as well as to think in various and innovative ways due to great enjoyment (Hayes, 2006). For foreign language learners especially young ones, it is necessary to refer three types of learning strategies: cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies in which emphasis mental engagement and learning in social contexts (Grenfell and Harris, 1999). In other words, design a foreign language class followed by effective learning theories and for young learners would possibly be further step to help them to acquire foreign language in specific context. And teachers could help students learn language actively in creative atmosphere through designing activities and tasks within authentic learning environment (Huh and Egbert, 2010). In this essay, three main questions would be discussed: first, how could primary teachers guide students to learn foreign language by employing creative thinking skills? Second, in practice, how to apply creative activities in foreign language classroom in order to foster students’ creative thinking as well as improve basic skills of foreign language for young learners, for instance, literacy or grammar? Third, what challenge might foreign language teachers encounter and what change could be possibly made in Chinese context? II. Literature Review With reference to the three major research questions that were produced as part of the introduction, the literature review is used to critically analyse existing works of literature that attempt to answer the questions. To do this, the literature review has been divided into three major themes, each of which focuses on one of the research questions. As part of the literature review, ideas from different authors are both compared and contrasted on the themes that are presented. There are also specific examples and demonstrations of impact from the different authors whose works are used in the review. To a large extent therefore, the literature review serves as a conceptual framework for the whole study. Employing creative thinking skills in learning foreign language In terms of the need to employee creative thinking skills in the learning of foreign language, there were several consensuses that were drawn in literature on why it was important to achieve this. Baumfield and Oberski (1998) noted for example that the use of creative thinking skills in language teaching is a requirement to ensure that students become proactive in the use of language. In support of this idea, Topping and Trickey (2007) also indicated that using creative thinking skills in the teaching and learning of foreign language ensures that students gain very direct encounter and relationship between the language being learned and their cognitive development. This is because as part of creative language learning, students are expected to use their cognitive abilities to implement very specific language based tasks. An example that was used expatiate the use of creative thinking skills in language learning, Feldman (1997) stated that as students are given instructions in the pronunciation of certain foreign words, they tend to use elaborate, intricate and complex stimuli and thinking patterns relating the pronunciation patterns in the foreign language to their first language. This situation can be said to be in contrast to a non-creative language learning who fails to apply creative thinking skills in learning foreign language. This is because according to Trickey and Topping (2004), non-creative language learners tend to learn foreign language in isolation without drawing any cognitive relations with their first language. One area in literature where much contrasting opinions were drawn among authors was with how teachers as facilitators of learning could employ creative thinking skills in the foreign language class. This is because from the perspective of the communicative approach to language teaching, it was noted that the teacher’s major approach ought to focus on the use of language, meaning and language as a communication tool (Kabilan, 2000). This means that when teachers employ the use of creative thinking skills with emphasis to the communicative approach to language, they would only use those skills that foster and promote communicative interactions between learners. A typical example of such communicative interactions can be given as role play, where students interact with each other as they take up roles in the classroom setting (Shayer and Adey, 2002). Fisher (2007) however offered a contrasting approach to the use of creative thinking skills by teachers in the learning of foreign language. Instead of using the communicative approach in isolation, Kaliban (2000) recommended the combined use of communicative approach with cognitive learning strategies in an integrated learning environment. Demonstrating the impact of the integrated creative learning approach on students, Vansieleghem (2005) explained that this approach ensures that students are able to support the meanings they would originally develop from the use of communicative approach with logical explanation and detailed examples, which makes learning a personal experience for students. Because of the personal encounter students have by manipulating the learning process, chances that the acquired concepts of language will be with them for them are higher (Leat and Higgins, 2002). Applying creative activities and techniques in foreign language classrooms Searching through literature, it was found that a good number of authors admit to the fact that the teacher has enormous role to play in ensuing that the classroom environment becomes one that is a creative environment (Wall and Higgins, 2006; Trickey and Topping, 2004). One of the ways to ensure that this is done is by applying different activities and techniques in the foreign language classroom. One important revelation that was made from literature and among different authors such as Nichols and Kinninment (2009) and Rawling and Westaway (2003) was the fact that in the application of various creative activities and techniques in the foreign language classroom, teachers must ensure that such activities are learner-based. In this, different activities and techniques were suggested from the result of different research works. Mercer and Littleton (2007) recommended the use of assumption busting as a technique that triggers the current thinking paradigms of learners. This is because assumption busting involves the listing of unquestioned, assumed truths that can be related with a language task. Students are then made to apply their creative thinking skills by identifying different conditions under which the given assumptions could be true or false. Roberts (2003) also recommended the use of brainstorming as another technique that enhances open ended thinking among learners. This is because in brainstorming, students are allowed to produce as many possible solutions to language based problems as possible. Students are then encouraged to thoroughly discuss each possible solution until less fitting answers are taking out, remaining the most outstanding answers. Several other techniques and activities have been recommended in literature, each of which seeks to make use of child-centred approaches to learning in the language classroom. Examples of these other approaches include “role-playing, storyboarding” (Rawling and Westaway, 2003, 43), “DO IT, random input, decision tree” (Topping and Trickey, 2007, 12), “questioning activity, brain-sketching, fishbone, and concept mapping” (Hall et al., 2006, 123). Hal et al. (2006) explained that in the use of concept mapping, teachers may introduce a key concept with a sub-concept and later provoke the creative thinking skills of students by making them come up with keywords that relate to the key words, and words which when put together help to ensure that there is a definitive meaning made from the concept. In the example below, the story of Saint Nicolas is used as an example of concept mapping. Figure 1: Example of Concept Mapping Source: Novak & Canas (2008, 15) Demonstrating on the impact of the use of creativity activities and techniques in the foreign language class, Nichols and Kinninment (2009) noted that all forms of learned-centred creative learning activities ensure that foreign language is learnt from the perspective of the learner rather than the teacher. As a result of this, learners are able to move within learning pace and speed that best meet their competence levels. Baumfield and Oberski (1998) also indicated learning from the perspective of the learner guarantees that the assumption, assimilation and usage stages of learning are fast tracked among learners. This is because instead of using rote learning, students are offered the opportunity of personally experiencing the concepts and having them as part of their everyday life (Vansieleghem, 2005). Challenges faced in the creative teaching of foreign language in the Chinese context Even though the use of creative teaching methods has been embraced in several Chinese classroom contexts, literature reviewed showed that there have been a number of challenges that come with the implementation of the creative thinking class. One such challenge that was shared by both Roberts (2003) and Topping and Trickey (2007) was the absence of a creative learning environment in most schools. Supporting and elaborating the point, Nichols and Kinninment (2009) noted that creative thinking as a concept requires an enabling environment to make it effective. An example of such enabling environment has been given to be a classroom that has the necessary teaching and learning resources that students can effectively interact with. Vansieleghem (2005) saw a situation where even though most schools can boast of the presence of some of these teaching and learning resources, the resources are woefully inadequate for the students in the classroom. Demonstrating the impact of such a learning environment on the use of creative thinking skills and activities in the foreign language class, Fisher (2007) indicated that insufficient teaching and learning resources among the students causes delays in implementing creative teaching strategies and so discourages teachers from using them. By implication, it is expected that the classroom environment will be accommodating for creative learning to be implemented. Quote (year) raised a challenge that has to do with the situation where the Chinese educational system has been made to be examination oriented instead of learning oriented. Because of this, teachers and students alike are always seeking ways by which they can acquire concepts that will make them pass their examination. Some of the approaches used to achieve this are rote learning and repetitive memorizing, all of which are teacher-centred instead of student centred (quote). Quote (year) indicated that with these examination oriented approaches to teaching, learners are not encouraged to use creative learning principles, which will make them adapt and acquire concepts as part of their daily learning. Rather they memorise concepts, produce them for examination, and forget about the concepts later on. Trickey and Topping (2004) also raised a contrasting opinion on the challenge with the implementation and use of creative teaching skills in the classroom, where it was argued that the real challenge that most schools and teachers face is the absence of motivation for them use of creative teaching interventions. By implication, even if the right learning atmosphere is created for in the school by providing all necessary resources and teachers are not well motivated, they would rather use conventional teaching methods than creative teaching methods, which is the most preferred. Supporting and elaborating the point, Mercer and Littleton (2007) indicated that the adoption and use of creative skills in foreign language class is not a mandatory practice in most Chinese schools. For this reason, it takes teachers who are extra motivated to take up the challenge of implementing them in their classrooms. Also touching on motivation for teachers, Wall and Higgins (2006) opined that there are several forms in which teacher motivation could be given to ensure that they take to the use of creative skills in teaching. Two general types of motivation under which various forms of motivation fall for teachers have been noted to be intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Leat and Higgins, 2002). As part of intrinsic motivation, such intangible rewards as words of encouragement, whiles extrinsic motivation could also involve extra duty allowance given to teachers who go the extra mile to use creative teaching methods. III. Discussion As the literature review helped in analysing the research questions from the context of what other researchers have written about the themes of the research in general, the discussion helps in curtailing the issues very specifically to China as the selected country. To undertake the discussion, various models and theories on creative thinking and foreign language learning will be applied to four major themes, all of which relate to the research questions. The themes are cognitive skill-productive thinking, the language thinking skills classroom, the theory of debriefing, and challenges for teaching thinking skills in language classroom. Cognitive skills and productive thinking In an actual classroom situation such as the one found in most Chinese language classes, Moseley et al. (2004) argued that there is the need for the cognitive skills of learners to be applied in a result oriented manner that creates a powerful learning environment for productive thinking to be said to have taken place. In effect, cognitive skills are a general requirement for achieving productive thinking. For Chinese students learning foreign languages to be aided in attaining productive thinking therefore, it is expected that the concept of cognitive skills development would first be understood even by the teachers who are delivering lessons to the students. By so doing, the teachers can be assured that in their teaching, they are delivering to their learners, exactly what is needed to be productive thinkers in the long way. To achieve this aim, Vygotsky (1978) used the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to explain how cognitive development takes place among learners. As depicted in figure 2, according to the ZPD, in the development of cognition by learners, there is always the actual development level which is defined by what is known, and the potential development level which is defined by is not known but can be known. Base on the ZPD therefore, problem solving under the guidance of an adult, who in this context is a language teacher is used to ensure that the distance between the actual development level and the potential development level is bridged (Vygostsky, 1978). Figure 2: Representation of the ZPD In the estimation of Vygotsky (1978), learning is a tool that can be used to ensure that the distance between what is known and what is unknown is bridged. Building on this concept, modern theorists such as Moseley et al (2004) have explained that the bridging of the gap for cognitive development to take place is actually fast-tracked when thinking skills approaches are used. In the literature review, it was noted that there are several approaches and activities that teachers can use in promoting thinking skills. As globalisation has made the need for foreign language learning highly relevant in the current global context, it is expected that teachers in various Chinese language schools would be proactive with the need to ensuring that their teaching is based on thinking skills approaches. As it has been recommended by Moseley et al. (2004), when the necessary thinking skills approaches are used, teachers can be assured that their classrooms will be turned into powerful learning environments that help learners to maximise their potential and thus be said to have attained productive thinking. With this said, another important reference will be made to the ZPD, where Vygotsky saw the collaboration with more capable peers by students who have less cognitive abilities as a means of achieving potential cognitive development. By this, it can be suggested that whiles choosing among the various creative thinking approaches to teaching language, it will be important to ensure that the selected approaches are those that offer peer learning and interaction among students. The languages thinking skills classroom Lin and Mackay (2004) hold the assertion that it is possible for students to develop thinking that is done through modern foreign language. In the Chinese context therefore, such modern foreign languages as French, English, Spanish, and German can be made reference to. However, the researcher sees the stage or level where students begin to think through the use of modern foreign language as an end, which must have a means of achieving it. By implication, Chinese students attempting to learn foreign language must be aided through a number of interventions to come to that prime stage in their educational career where they are able to think very effectively through modern foreign language was recommended by Lin and Mackay (2004). As a first attempt to the identified end, it will be important that the classroom in which these students learn will be one that can be turned into a languages thinking skills classroom. What this means is that the classroom must be seen as accommodating and welcoming for languages thinking skills to be developed (Hall et al., 2006). Already, the works of some authors were reviewed in the literature review, who lamented about the poor learning environment in most schools, which makes it challenging to promote thinking skills development. The call above can therefore be said to be a direct response to solving that identified challenge of non-creative learning environments. This is because for a languages thinking skills classroom to be created, it means that from whatever perspective it is viewed, learners must be accommodated in the classroom to apply their creative thinking skills (Shayer and Adey, 2002). Indeed Lin and Mackay (2004) agree that there should be a means to attaining the end of thinking through modern foreign language. In the light of this, they recommend different strategies that have been based on theory and practice. The fact that the strategies are related to both theory and practice makes it possible to incorporate the Bloom’s six level taxonomies in the application of creative thinking strategies in general. For example based on Bloom’s taxonomy, every classroom strategy must be set with the objectives that cater for the cognitive, affective and psychomotor. In applying the three domains, cognitive can be said to be focused on the use of theory whiles affective and psychomotor puts the theory to function (Mercer and Littleton, 2007). For the Chinese language learning context, a lot of emphasis can however be put on the first domain which is cognitive because of the fact that the present study is looking more into creative thinking and cognitive also borders on knowing with the head (Shayer and Adey, 2002). Having said this, it would be acknowledged that in creating a language thinking skills classroom, six major skills must always be the focus of teachers as they have been categorised in Bloom’s taxonomy and displayed in figure 3. At the most bottom level, teachers must develop the skill of remembering, which is gradually raised to the skill of understanding and then application. After students have mastered these with specific reference to creative thinking activities, teachers will then aim for students’ ability to analyse, evaluate and create concepts for themselves. Once all these have been done, the way will be paved for thinking to be done in the targeted foreign language because students will now be creative enough to do so. Figure 3: Cognitive domain of Blooms taxonomy Source: Anderson et al. (2000, 31) The theory of debriefing Fisher (2007) mentioned that language is best developed when it is used by its learners. It is not surprising therefore that in the Bloom’s taxonomy, the final stage of cognitive skill is the ability to create, where learners will be expected to use language acquired by creating different communicative scenarios. Rightly in line with this, Leat and Kinninment (2000) used the theory of debriefing to exemplify ways in which foreign language learners can best apply the language they acquire. As part of foreign language learning, Leat and Kinninment (2000) recommended that after every form or stage of new language concept acquisition has been done, teachers are encouraged to allow debriefing among students. In order to do this effectively, there are three major learning approaches or concepts that will be expected to be applied by the teachers. The first of this is meta-cognition, where students are encouraged to reflect on and talk about the thinking process (Leat and Kinninment, 2000). Here, the implication that is created for the Chinese context is that debriefing can best be applied when teachers make the effort to ensure that thinking process takes place as part of their teaching. This is because without this, meta-cognition stage which requires reflection and talking about the thinking process will be lacking. Explaining why the need to reflect and talk about learning experiences is important for foreign language learners, Baumfield and Oberski (1998) explained that it gives them the opportunity of engaging in both self and peer evaluation of what they learnt. Even though the previous author believes that through the reflection and talking about process evaluation can happen, Leat and Kinninment (2000) actually opined that evaluating strategies used in the teaching can take place as an independent phase of debriefing, which is self regulation. Rightly in line with these two phases of debriefing, Flavell (1979) and Boekart and Simons (1999) developed metacognition, which was seen as an awareness of a person’s own cognitive process, as well as for the planning, monitoring and evaluation of one’s thinking and learning. By implication, both metacognition as an independent theory and debriefing allow learners to take control of the learning process, by not just using what has been learned but also asking themselves how well they could engage in learning. Once all these have been done, the last phase of debriefing is moved to, which involves the transfer of learning. Leat and Kinninment (2000) explained that transfer of learning is said to have taken place when learners are given the chance to make connections between the leaning and its application in other contexts. A typical example of this that can be given for Chinese learners in foreign language class is when the students apply knowledge in lessons in English phonics to assist them in the reading English language story books. With this example, the connection that can be created is that through phonics, students learn pronunciation, which makes it possible for them to undertake reading in general. Challenges for teaching thinking skills in language classroom Based on the premise of the challenges for teaching thinking skills in language classroom that were found under the literature review, it is possible to incorporate much theory to help in discussing how the challenges go down specifically to affect learners in a typical Chinese foreign language class. The model that is used in doing this is the Pintrich (2000) framework which gives four phases of self regulation. As debriefing entails several aspects of evaluation, it would have been expected that self regulation could have been used in that context. However, the researcher has a strong feeling that the challenges that are faced in the teaching of thinking skills in language classroom can also be directly questioned in terms of how they hinder the fulfilment of the four phases of self regulation. For example the first phase is forethought, planning and activation, which refers to how language concepts can be put together and successfully implemented. At this phase however, a common challenge that may be faced by teachers is having resources and support to ensure that they maximise various opportunities for learners through the planning of interactive target language learning (Hall et al., 2006). In the Chinese context, a typical resource that easily hinders the scaffolding of activities in maximising students learning is time as most language lessons given very little durations. There are two other phases of self regulation which are monitoring and control, which are used after the planned teaching processes have been implemented (Leat and Higgins, 2002). Meanwhile, while students try to self regulate themselves, it is very common that they will face the dilemma of balancing thinking skills with other forms of learning, making it difficult to define the right monitoring and control programmes to use. For example, whether self regulation takes place among students or teachers, there may be that difficulty or confusion in determining whether approaches used in the monitoring and control independently serve the purpose of thinking skills or it incorporates other forms of learning. Wall and Higgins (2006) however opined that such dilemmas are very common to arise when teachers themselves create disconnect from the actual learning of language with the aim of teaching thinking. Finally, self regulation comes with reaction and reflection, where learners are supposed to pounder upon the whole learning process to see how well they can fit themselves into the ultimate goals that were expected from the lesson. Meanwhile the challenge where students are reluctant to take part in lessons due to the fear of making mistakes makes it virtually impossible to get a true reflection of student involvement in the thinking process. IV. Conclusion Second, in practice, how to apply creative activities in foreign language classroom in order to foster students’ creative thinking as well as improve basic skills of foreign language for young learners, for instance, literacy or grammar? Third, what challenge might foreign language teachers encounter and what change could be possibly made in Chinese context? The first research question sought to find out how primary teachers could guide students to learn foreign language by employing creative thinking skill. Based on the outcome of the literature review and discussion, it has clearly been argued that in the teaching of foreign language, the communicative approach alone cannot be adequate in ensuring that students become masters of the targeted language. Rather, it is important to integrate the communicative approach with creative thinking as the best way primary teachers can guide students to learn foreign language. The rationale for this assertion is that in the use of communicative approach to teaching language, teachers may tend to think that the mere fact that students are able to use language is enough confirmation of learning. Based on this conclusion, it is recommended that the current situation where there is emphasis on the communicative approach alone will be changed to increase creative thinking skills. With the use of creative thinking, students see themselves as becoming a personal part of the learning process and thus adapt new languages as a more permanent part of their experience. Based on the outcome of the first research question, the second research question sought to know how in practice, teachers can apply creative activities in foreign language classroom in order to foster students’ creative thinking as well as improve basic skills of foreign language for young learners, for instance, literacy or grammar. This means that the researcher did not only ask about why creative thinking is now preferred but also how it can be implemented in the context of Chinese language settings. The literature review and discussion showed that the best approach to using creative learning skills is by adapting the use of creative activities in the classroom in a very interactive manner. But before this can be possible, the third research question showed the need to first overcome challenges with the approach to teaching in Chinese schools which is largely examination oriented instead of creative oriented. Clearly, the assignment has not only become a way of building theoretical concepts on creative thinking. Rather, it has also aided in the personal understanding and appreciation of the need to embrace creative thinking as the ultimate approach to language teaching. Due to this insight that has been created, my approach to future language teaching is going to be massively affected. In the first place, I have gained knowledge on the role of the teacher in creating an enabling creative thinking environment for learning to take place, which I shall put to practice. Again, I have come to understand that motivation is needed in implementing a creative thinking class. Consequently, I am going to focus on the development of intrinsic motivation, which will be through the personal satisfaction I will gain after my students are able to successfully acquire foreign languages that are expected of them. Finally, it will be recommended that in order for improved classroom strategies to be effective and worthwhile, it is important that teachers will not make the learning of creative thinking skills an event which happens once and never again. Rather, it is important that there will be periodic learning about creative thinking teaching. The reason for this recommendation is that knowledge is a dynamic phenomenon which continues to change with time. at each point in time therefore, teachers ought to be abreast with changing trends in the educational world so that they can adjust and adapt to the changes very well. References Anderson, et al. (2000) A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Allyn and Bacon. Baumfield, V.M. and Oberski, I.O. (1998) ‘What do teachers think about thinking skills?’ Quality Assurance in Education, 6(1), pp. 44-51. Beetlestone, F. (1998) Creative Children, Imaginative Teaching. 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