The Process of Developing and Executing Learning Strategies - Essay Example

? Constructivism as the Most Effective Psychological Learning Theory to Apply to Adult Learners Lecturer: Module and Date Submitted: Andragogy, as a relatively modern term, describes the process of developing and executing learning strategies focused solely on adult learners. It is this focus on the adult learner, rather than the child learner, which differentiates andragogy from pedagogy, and thus defines itself within a specific set of paradigms, theories and actions, which all aim toward maximizing the learning potential of adults through effective strategies. It is built upon certain observed characteristics of adults, which affect the way in which they learn and relate new information (Knowles et al, 2005). Due to the distinguishing characteristics of adult learners, certain psychological theories must be applied in order to maximise on learning potential which requires several actions to be taken, such as assessing the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating a systematic instructional format based upon this. To succeed, it is dependent upon pedagogically tested psychological theories, the principal approaches being behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. Primarily characterised by their individual interpretations of what constitutes ‘learning’ and how it occurs, these approaches provide instructors with verified strategies and techniques for facilitating learning. This essay will discuss the defining characteristics and necessary conditions for adult learning as postulated by theorist Malcolm Knowles. It will then examine behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism as general approaches to learning with particular emphasis on the superiority of constructivism in this context and how it can be applied to adult learning. One of the central principles which surround the teaching of adult learners is that of individual experience. “As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning” (Smith, 2011). Unlike children, adults have inevitably built up a wealth of personal experience which can be utilized in a way which can help learning, such as relating new information to previous experience, recalling previous experience, and/or using familiar examples to apply learning to unfamiliar concepts. Teaching strategies which build upon experiential learning will be an extension of everyday life (Knowles et al, 2005). Adult learners partake in a process which sees them reflect, draw inference from and conceptualize, based upon previous individual experience. As this wealth of experience is seen as the richest resource of information for the learner, it must be pointed out that individual experience is fundamentally biased and of an entirely subjective nature. This implies that new information may be interpreted in different ways, which can be advantageous as it allows for new ideas and opinions, but can also have its disadvantages regarding personal bias. A second principle which is determined to be of special significance to adult learning is that of the self-concept. Within the paradigm of learning, self-concept relates to the movement of an individual’s perception of themselves as a self-directed person rather than being dependent upon others. Adults are viewed as being responsible and fully accountable for their own decisions and therefore must be treated as autonomous learners. Due to this perspective, autonomy is seen as vitally important for this theory. In its broadest sense, self-directed learning describes a set of actions in which potential learners take the initiative in identifying their learning needs and goals, and evaluating learning outcomes. The steps involved in working through such a process have generated several model which have since been re-imagined into a more interactive design which takes into account the nature and contextual elements of the learning (Cooper, 2009). Readiness to learn, or motivation to learn, is another underlying concept of the theory of angragogy. This element is concerned with the orientation of motivation towards the developmental tasks of social roles and functions (Knowles et al., 2005). Individuals become more ready to learn when they experience a need to learn, in order to cope with real-life problems and plausible situations. Within this theoretical framework, is the importance for the teacher or instructor, to provide conditions and tools for learners which emphasise or give reasons to acquire and understand new information. This also means that material should be presented in ways which are beneficial to the present time, as opposed to the future, as well as being presented in a way in which directly relates to learner in some way (Smith, 2011). Otherwise, the need to learn is compromised. Establishing the needs and motivations of individuals to learn, is an important aspect of the process of andragogy. This is commonly achieved by using surveys or conducting a needs assessment prior to an educational course. During the course, strategies such as role-plays or simulated situations are often used to establish real-life context and thus, a need to learn. In attempting to meet these conditions for adult learning, three psychological theories have dominated the field; behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. Behaviourism, being the earliest, encompasses the work of psychologists such as Pavlov, Skinner and Watson in relation to the practise of both classical and operant conditioning. As its name suggests, this theory is exclusively concerned with the learner’s overt behaviour as that which is observable and therefore measurable. Integral to this, is the understanding that behaviours can be scientifically described without reference to psychological activities. It views the mind as a ‘black box’, in that internal processes such as emotions and motivations cannot be observed nor measured and are therefore empirically unsound and thus disregarded in the context of facilitating the learning experience. Behaviourism defines learning as a permanent change in observable behaviour. It stipulates that learning has occurred when a desired/correct behaviour from the learner, is elicited upon the presentation of a target stimulus. The way in which this response is produced, strengthened and ultimately, maintained, is the principal concern of the behaviouristic approach. It is the association between the stimulus and the response which determines the behaviour of the learner. The theory holds that the consequences of correct behaviours by the learner upon presentation of a stimulus, reinforces the occurrence and frequency of the desired behaviour and in this way learning has occurred. If we imagine a class of adult childcare students, the instructor may give a written exam about a relevant topic within the childcare domain. From a behavioural viewpoint, the exam serves as the stimulus and the desired behaviour is the successful completion of the exam. The students may receive reinforcement in several ways here, such as positive feedback from the instructor, a good grade or the absence of negative feedback. Either way, the ‘reward’ or consequence of the correct behaviour serves to strengthen the association between the stimulus and the response and therefore, the likelihood and frequency of the target behaviour increases. Memory is not addressed by behaviourists and does not play a role in the learning process. Forgetting is attributed to lack of practise or the absence of a response over time, such as neglecting to provide feedback. If this occurs, the target behaviour may decrease in frequency or even become extinct, and in this way it is, ‘forgotten’. Similarly, the learner takes a passive role. The learner is reactive to the conditions of the environment as opposed to actively taking a role in the learning process and making independent discoveries. The individual learns by physically engaging in trial and error repetitively, in order to learn and to prove that learning has occurred, and practise is a vital element in this. On the other hand, the role of the instructor according to this concept is of vital importance, without which, learning cannot occur. The role can be categorised into three areas: to identify which cues can produce the desired behaviour, to arrange practise situations in which prompts are matched with target stimuli, and to arrange an environment which enables students to make correct responses to those stimuli and receive reinforcement after doing so (Ertmer and Newby 1993). In the childcare class example, the students are passively absorbing the information supplied by the instructor. If the instructor wanted to teach the class the correct way to handle a newborn baby, they may supply dolls in the classroom for the students to practise on. They may provide cues and prompts such as verbal guidelines in order to elicit the desired behaviours. The students would then attempt to carry out the procedure continuously until the correct method is achieved. Until the basic steps are mastered by the student, only then will the instructor move onto more advanced or detailed skills. The basic behavioural principles of relevance to adult learning settings are centred around environmental conditions. Learner analysis is utilised via pre-assessment of learners to determine at which stage to begin instruction, and to establish which reinforcers are most effective in order to optimize individual performance. Task analysis is used to break down overall objectives into smaller, more specific measurable tasks in a systematic way. Central to this is the idea of mastering simpler material before any progression is made onto more complex tasks. The use of cues and prompts is very common in achieving this. Learning success may be observed by tests developed to measure each objective but to achieve this, the arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the environment is of vital importance. In stark contrast to the behavioural approach, cogntivism holds psychological processes as its emphasis in facilitating the learning process. Whereas behaviourism exclusively interacts with that which is overt and measurable, cognitivism stresses complex mental processes which are essentially covert, such as thinking, language, problem-solving and information processing. It attempts to delve into the ‘black box’ that behavioural theory ignores, in order to achieve learning on a higher level so that learners understand the material and can apply it in different contexts.This approach defines learning as a change in knowledge stored in the memory of the learner, rather than a change in the probability of an overt response as with behaviourism. It is concerned with what the learner knows and how they come to know it. Learning occurs in the successful reception, organisation, storage and retrieval of information. It is based on the learners pre-existing knowledge or schema, which adapt to accommodate new information. While both approaches agree upon the importance and effectiveness of environmental stimuli and practise for successful learning, cognitivism takes the process further and engages not just in identifying, but more importantly, manipulating mental processes. Due to this, the roles of memory, learner and instructor, differ vastly between the two approaches. Memory takes a very prominent role in cognitivism, and learning results when information is stored in memory in an organised and meaningful way, using techniques such a mnemonics. Forgetting is viewed as the inability to retrieve information from memory. Unlike the behavioural learner who takes a reactive role in the process and relies purely on environmental stimuli, the cognitive learner takes a very active role and is required to undertake internal encoding and structuring of information. The real focus of the cognitivist instructor then, is on changing the adult learner by directing them towards the most appropriate learning strategies. Unlike behavioural theory, cognitive instructors make knowledge meaningful by the structure and relation of new information, to existing knowledge in the learner’s memory. To achieve this, the instructor must appreciate that individuals bring diverse learning experiences which can impact learning outcomes. From this, they must determine the most effective manner in which to organise and structure new information via the use of tools such as metaphors, analogies and outlining. The instructor must then arrange practise with feedback, so that that the new information is sufficiently assimilated within the learners mental framework. If we look again at the childcare class where the instructor now employs a cognitive approach. He/she may initially investigate whether any students have had children themselves. On determining this, they may then structure the learning material based upon the students pre-existing knowledge and build from there. For those that have no experience whatsoever, the instructor could use a metaphor to which the students can relate to, in order to provide a base on which learners can begin to mentally conceptualize the relevant concept in a meaningful way. This differs greatly from the behavioural approach where repeating a behaviour until it becomes automatic would be the nature of the learning process, devoid of any conceptual framework within which the material can be understood to a deeper extent. The basic cognitivist principles of relevance to instructional design are in many ways similar to those of behaviourism, such as the use of practise, environmental stimuli, learner and task analyses, and regular feedback. However, as we have discussed, the reasoning behind them is very different. Unlike behaviourism, the learner is actively involved and pre-requisite relationships are identified. Information is then structured, organised and sequenced based upon this pre-existing knowledge. The assumptions behind the theories of both behaviourism and cognitivism, are rooted in the premise of objectivism, in that, the world is a shared reality, and external to the learner who does not act upon it, but instead is acted upon by the environment. However, “constructivism shifts the focus of instruction from teaching to learning even further, from the passive transfer of facts to the active application of ideas to new problems” (Ertmer and Newby 1993). Learning is seen as a function of how an individual creates meaning from his/her own experiences and pre-existing knowledge or concepts. Even though it has developed as a branch of cognitivism, it distinguishes itself in a number of ways. “Whereas most cognitive psychologists think of the mind as reference tool to the real world; constructivists believe that the mind filters input from the world and produces its own unique reality” (Jonasson 1991a). Constructivists believe that our knowledge of the world is formed from our own personal interpretation of experiences and so learning is defined as a change in meaning or the creation of meaning. Since there are an infinite and varied number of interpretations, there is no ‘correct’ meaning that can be achieved as the internal representation of knowledge is subject to constant evolution. Learning occurs through group dialogue and collaborative problem-solving, and always within the context to which it is relevant, as it is the contextual, authentic experience which promotes the development of meaning. The unique idea of this approach is that memory is always ‘under construction’, in the sense that concepts will continue to evolve with each new use, adapting and changing as new experiences and meanings are added. Unlike both behaviourism and cognitivism, knowledge is not formed and structured into singular units, but is a framework of shifting conceptualizations. Both learner and environmental factors are critical here because it is the interaction between them that creates meaning. The learner is active as in cognitivism, but even more so, as they must construct their own unique interpretations. The primary role of the instructor then, is to provide guidelines on how to improve and manipulate constructions and meaning, and in a variety of ways using techniques such as modelling, coaching, scaffolding and the arrangement of group dialogues. They must design authentic learning experiences which are conducive to the development of problem-solving skills and critical thinking. They must promote collaboration with others to show multiple perspectives, and to encourage the student to arrive at individual opinions to which they can commit themselves, while still understanding the basis of contrasting views. If we look again to our childcare classroom where the instructor now takes a constructivist approach, the instructor may identify each student’s individual or unique experience within the relevant learning domain. They may then arrange regular group dialogues, where students discuss their diverse personal experiences and perspectives and can engage in debate, evidence-giving or collaborative problem-solving which would facilitate continuous construct development and a deep understanding of the domain as a whole, rather than solely as the individual’s perspective on it. More specifically, with reference to the previous example of how to handle a newborn baby, the constructivist instructor may arrange for students to participate in tasks in authentic contexts such as nurseries with real children, as opposed to dolls in a classroom setting as with both of the other approaches. With this, the student actively delves into the task first-hand, in the context to which it is applied in the real-world, a practise which greatly distinguishes constructivism from the other perspectives. The basic constructivist principles of learning differ from the other approaches given the nature of the theory itself. Instructional methods and strategies exercised are those which will assist learners in actively exploring complex topics/situations so that they can construct their own meanings. In this way, tasks are set in authentic, real-world contexts and so field- work and apprenticeships are very common. An essential element is the variety of information sources presented, and the exploration of multiple perspectives which is achieved with collaborative learning and group dialogue. Assessment is integrated within the task, and is focused on the transfer of knowledge and skills to new problems and ambiguous situations. The strengths and weaknesses of each approach can be attributed to their interpretations of the learning process and the learning objectives to which each theory strives. With behaviourism, its advantage is that there is only one clear goal for learners and learner reactions are somewhat predictable. It is also efficient for learning which enables generalizations, discriminations, chaining and associations. However this type of instruction would fail without the consistent use of cues and prompts to ensure correct responses, and the reinforcement used may not always be appropriate. It ignores inner motivations and mental states and so cannot explain nor enable the acquisition of higher level processing skills such as problem-solving. If we look at our childcare class under the behavioural guidelines, they may be able to respond correctly to questions to which there is a definite correct answer, such as how many times daily should a newborn be fed. On the other hand, they may not understand why this is, and furthermore, they would likely not know how to do it in a real-life situation. Cognitivism can boast of a consistency of responses amongst learners, provided they are trained in a similar manner. Learners will also gain more depth of knowledge than with behaviourism and so will have greater understanding. So here, the class may be able to explain why a newborn should be fed x amount of times. However this method does not facilitate the ability of the learner to approach a new problem in an effective way, or at all as with behaviourism. Constructivism has the distinguishing advantage of the application of learning to real-life situations. It is also far better at facilitating the ability to solve complex or ill-structured problems not previously encountered. So here, the learners cannot only explain why the newborn should be fed x amount of times, but they can actually do the task successfully and in addition, are more prepared to deal with any new or unforeseen problem relating to the task. The main weakness to this approach however lies in the potential inappropriateness of representations which are diverse and do not lend themselves to situations where conformity is required. For example, while the childcare students get to experience real life contexts like nurseries, there are obvious safety issues given the interaction with vulnerable subjects within in this environment. Learning is a complex process and adult learning can only occur effectively under certain conditions. Psychological research has generated three major theories about how learning is it successfully accomplished. It has direct implications on instructional design, where the approach taken may be a reflection of the desired learning outcome or of the nature of the information being taught. It may be simply a belief in the general effectiveness of one approach over another in the facilitation of successful instruction. While the theories differ in objectives and outcomes, they all basically engage in the same experience, that is, they all attempt to change something in the learner. Whether it is behaviour, knowledge or meaning, they all achieve their goal in their own way though methods do sometimes overlap. For example, introductory knowledge is better enabled via behaviourist and cognitive principals. However, as learning progresses onto more complex knowledge at higher levels of mental processing, constructivist methods are most effective and certainly most relevant to adult learning contexts. As information technology develops more and more, it may get easier for the instructor to employ a unique mixture of methods, based on principals relevant to each learning objective. What is constant though, is the importance of understanding the fundamental premise of each approach to learning, so as to produce the most effective adult learning environment possible. References Boeree, C. G. 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