Studies on Listening - Literature review Example

Literature Review Listening Strategies 2.0 Introduction The literature relating to listening strategy is not as wide as that relating to strategies associated with other language skills such as reading, writing and speaking. However, in similarity with the learning of the first language, listening is also critical. The ability of the learner to perform well in listening appears to be highly related to the strategy that is employed. A number of strategies have been studied and the general consensus is that metacognitive strategies improves listening proficiency. 2.1 Studies on listening In the past little attention was given to listening comprehension both theoretically and practically. Language learners were normally expected to develop their listening skills without any assistance, while the other three skills of reading, writing and speaking are given the necessary attention (Mendelsohn 1984; Oxford 1993). Second language learners were expected to listen to the target language all day and then expected to improvements in their ability to comprehend. This approach was described as the osmosis approach (Mendelson 1984) The arguments in relation to the importance of listening were initially voiced in the middle of the 1960’s. Rivers (1966) indicated that speaking can only be described as communication when it is understood by someone else and so teaching learners how to comprehend spoken words is paramount in importance if the aim of communicating is to be achieved. Thus, Hedge (2000) indicates that the literature relating to ELT has emphasised the point that listening skill has been taken for granted over the years. In fact, a number of second language teachers have refused to pay attention to the significance of listening in facilitating the acquisition of a second language (Luchini and Arguello 2009). However, Nunan (1999) points out that listening has been treated as relatively important as it is the means by which the skill of speaking is attained. The incorporation of listening into a more modern set of guidelines, including functional language and approaches to communication was the main focus of the 1980’s (Morley 2001). This attention increased significantly in the 1990’s and this has continued into the decade of the 2000’s. Even though listening is now regarded as a critical aspect of language learning, it continues to be the least understood of all the processes (Osada 2004). Thus, Luchini and Arguello (2009) states that allowing students to answer questions after listening to tape-recorded material is not a means of teaching them to listen. In this regard, Hedge (2000) points out that the aim of answering questions after listening to recorded material is only for administering tests and not teaching second language learners to listen. This practice was found to have a negative impact on the ability of second language learners to communicate well in the target language. In relation to the neglect of listening comprehension in both research and practice, Osada (2004) indicates that even up to recently there has been insufficient research in this area. In fact, Nunan (1997) referred to listening as a Cinderella skill because it has been ignored in preference for other skills such as speaking. Listening is important in order to facilitate language learning as it facilitates a better understanding of the inputs. Osada (2004) also emphasised the complexity of the listening comprehension process. Anything that is said has to be understood at the same time as it is heard and so knowledge and skills necessary for doing so has to he used at the same time. In order to process the speech the comprehension of the text has to take place at the same as the listening. Additionally, it has to be retained in order to have a better understanding of the speech that follows. Furthermore, it requires continuous adjustment based on previous knowledge and incoming information. This poses a problem for listeners as the space available to process the information is limited. Osada (2004) also points out that less proficient learners encounter even greater difficulty as they have to be focused on identifying the words at a time when there is insufficient room for top-down processing. 2.2 Definitions and Classification of Listening strategies A strategy is a ploy. It is a plan of action to achieve a particular objective. Since learners have a problem with listening comprehension, the goal of listening strategies is obtain improvements in students learning a second language by developing their listening and comprehension skills. A number of studies have shown that learners who receive listening strategy instructions perform better than those who do not receive instructions in listening strategy. Tactics are the tools and techniques that are used to obtain improvements. Griffiths (2008) indicates that there are differences in the meaning of the term “strategy” but there are also differences in the terminology used to cover phenomena which fits the definitions which emerged during the 1970’s and 80’s. Therefore the terms “learning behaviour” and “tactics” are treated as being equal to learning strategies. However, Oxford (1990; p. 8) defines it as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations.” Macaro (2006) indicates that the term “actions” in Oxford’s definition does not take into account the fact that strategies involves the thought process. Rubin (1987) distinguishes between strategies that affect learning directly and those that affect learning indirectly. There are three types of strategies that affect learning directly and indirectly. They are: cognitive, metacognitive and communication strategies. Cognitive learning strategies can be divided into six strategies. They include clarifying and verifying information in order to confirm understanding. Guessing is the second of the six cognitive learning strategies which infers meaning from keywords, context and various clues. Deductive reasoning is another of these strategies that makes comparison with what is already known, makes use of rules, breaks sown sentences and makes comparison with the first language. Practice is a strategy which involves repetition in listening and other skill areas. Memorisation is another strategy which facilitates the strengthening of other language skill areas. The last of the six strategies is monitoring in order to correct pronunciation and a number of other errors. Metacognitive strategies regulate the learning process by planning, mentoring and evaluating learning activities. Anderson (2001) indicates that metacognitive strategies adds some fire to learners thinking and is able to facilitate great learning and improvements in performance. One such example is that of listening and speaking on topics that are interesting. This is how learning can be improved by managing oneself and having the ability to identify learning preferences. Communication strategies are utilised by speakers when they are faced with difficulties in communicating. Rubin (1988) indicates that communication strategies are less directed to language learning since the emphasis is on giving meaning or providing clarification. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) categorises listening strategies into two main types – metacognitive and cognitive. Metacognitive strategies are deemed to be important because they involve overseeing, regulating and directing the process by which a second language is learnt. Cognitive strategies on the other hand either makes some adjustment to the learning material or the application of a special technique to the task. A third type included in the classification of O’Malley and Chamot (1990) is socio-affective strategies has been added. This strategy involves cooperation among learners, and asking questions in order to clarify matters. Some examples of strategies that fall in these three categories include: Metacognitive strategies – used to plan, monitor and evaluate language learning tasks. It requires an awareness of the requirements of the task. It involves a decision to pay attention to the listening task (directed attention). It requires listening for key words, phrases and linguistic markers (selective attention). In addition to that, it demands an understanding of and making arrangements for conditions that are required for learning. It also requires self-monitoring by checking comprehension of input and output as well as self-evaluation which involves passing judgement on the level of accomplishment. Cognitive strategies – used to elaborate, group, make inferences, and summarise the information that the learner needs to comprehend and learn. It involves a level of interaction with the material through mental and physical manipulation. It allows learners to relate new information to that already learnt and to make associations. They are able to guess the meaning of what they have heard and to make predictions about what is forthcoming. Elaboration is used to facilitate comprehension. Images in video taped material are used to assist comprehension. Sounds of words or phrases can be replayed mentally in order to facilitate second language learning. Note taking as well as mental and oral summary are also some useful aspects of this strategy. Socio-affective strategies – used to question others, cooperate with other learners, and engage in self-talk in order to facilitate the learning process. It involves interaction among second language learners and others or possibly controlling emotions in order to facilitate learning. It requires cooperating with other learners in order to share information gain practice and obtain feedback. It also involves seeking to clarify by obtaining explanation form teachers or other experts. Self-talk helps to reduce anxiety by placing emphasis on the positives associated with competencies in second language learning. Oxford (1990) classified strategies in the form of a taxonomy. It s described as being more comprehensive and comes with a lot of details. It systematically links each strategy and each group of strategies with speaking, reading, writing and listening. Oxford (1990) divides strategies into two classes – direct and indirect. The direct classification consists of memory, cognitive and compensation strategies while the indirect classification consists of metacognitive, affective and social. Memory strategies facilitate storage and retrieval of information and by so doing it assists learners. The four sets of memory strategies which can be remembered by the use of the acronym – CARE. They are: Creation of mental linkages – involving grouping; associating or elaborating; and finding out the meaning of new words based on the context in which they are used. It represents the foundation for all the other memory strategies. Grouping involves the classification or reclassification of what was heard. Associating or elaborating involves associating new ideas with information that is already known. Associations facilitate easy remembrance. Application of images and sounds – involves making use of images; semantic mapping; use of key words and the representation of sounds in memory. It is a means by which expressions are remembered based on sounds or images. Images relate new information to visual ideas that are stored in memory by the use of images that are not only familiar but easily retrievable. Key words can be used to improve listening skills as they group sounds and images in such a way that second language learners are able to remember what is heard. Review well – involves carrying out a review that has some structure to it. Reviews are carried out at different time periods. Tae recorded material can be listened to over and over again until the information becomes almost automatic. Employ action – physically responding and employing mechanical techniques. Physically responding means dramatising a new expression or relating that expression to sensation. The aim of mechanical techniques is to facilitate the remembrance of information in a new foreign language. Memory strategies facilitate storage of the things that learners hear in the second language. This helps them to expand their knowledge base. Cognitive strategies facilitate an understanding of a second language in many ways. It includes making summaries and deductive reasoning. The main functions of cognitive strategies are to manipulate and transform the second language learner. These strategies fall into four groups which when combined form PRAC. They are: Practising – involves repeating; practising formally through the use of sounds; recognising as well as through the use of patterns and formulas; reintegrating; and practising in natural ways. Practising is deemed to of paramount importance when compared to other cognitive strategies. This strategy is employed when second language learners listen repeatedly to native speakers of the target second language on tape. Practising in natural ways involves making use of the second language in a natural and realistic setting by listening to a lecture. Receive and send messages – involves getting the concept quickly as well as making use of the means for receipt and dispersion of information. Getting the concept quickly employs two techniques to facilitate an exchange of ideas. They are skimming and scanning. Receipt and dispersal of messages involves using different means of comprehending or creating meaning. Tapes and video cassettes can roved some of the information that is required for a better understanding of messages received and to create messages to send out. Analyse and reason – involves deductive reasoning; analysing expressions; employing contrast in the analysis across languages, translation and transfer. It facilitates learners’ use of the logical thought process to understand and make use of the rules of grammar and vocabulary of the second language. Elements such as sounds, words and syntax are analysed contrastively in order to determine the similarities and differences. Creation of a structure for both input and output – involves note taking, preparing summaries and noting important information by highlighting them. Note taking involves writing down the main points. Summarising what has been heard and highlighting important points facilitates the organisation and sorting of information. Compensation strategies facilitate the use of a second language in spite of major gaps in learners’ knowledge. Such strategies include guessing and the use of synonyms. They help learners to overcome difficulties in listening, speaking, writing and reading a second language. Oxford (1990) indicates that there are ten compensation strategies. These strategies can be classified in tow groups. The acronym for the two sets is “Go” and involves: Guessing intelligibly – this is done using linguistic data and other clues. Learners make intelligent guesses without full comprehension of what has been heard. Linguistic cues such as suffixes and prefixes are used to guess the meaning of words and phrases. Other cues come from facial expression and the context of the situation. Clues to listen for can be had from introductions, summaries and conclusions. The title can also be a useful clue. Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing – this involves the learner switching to the first language; requesting help; making use of miming and gesturing; communication avoidance; the selection of a topic; making adjustments to and approximating messages; coining words; and making use of synonyms. Oxford (1990) indirect classification of learning strategies are: metacognitive; affective and social. Indirect strategies provide support through focusing, planning, evaluating and looking for opportunities. They are more effective when they are integrated with direct strategies. Metacognitive strategies are centring learning; involves learners making arrangements for and planning their learning; and carrying out evaluation of their learning. Centring learning involves preparing an overview and making links with other known resources. It involves staying focused and delaying talk is that listening can be the main skill area of focus. Making arrangements and planning for learning focuses on obtaining information that relates to learning a second language. It also involves a level of organisation; setting goals and objectives in order to be successful in gaining the required skills; identifying the reason behind language tasks; and looking for the opportunity to practice. Evaluation of one’s grasp of a second language requires monitoring and evaluation of self and therefore requires a level of objectivity. Affective strategies include lowering learners’ anxiety; self encouragement; and checking the temperature of their emotions. In order to reduce anxiety it is recommended that the learner should breathe deeply or meditate. These are very good relaxation methods. The learner could also use music or laughter. This will facilitate the accomplishment of various tasks such as listening comprehension. Self encouragement includes making positive statements; taking risks in a sensible manner; and giving reward to oneself. Checking the temperature of emotions involves listening to the your own body; making use of a checklist; making use of a diary for language learning activities; and sharing feeling with others. Social strategies include asking questions, cooperation with others (especially fellow learners) and empathising with others. Each of these three strategies consists of other sub-strategies. Asking questions involves obtaining clarification or verification and to obtain correction. Cooperating with others relates to fellow learners as well as those who are proficient at the language. Empathising involves the development of cultural understanding and gaining a level of awareness of how others feel and think. 2.3 Listening strategies and listening proficiency According to White (2008) the first skill that learners normally develop in their native language is listening. They listen to sounds and other utterances which they repeat and later learn to read and in the final analysis learn to write it. Rubin (1994) indicates that even though research in the area of language strategies have increased, studies in listening comprehension are few in comparison and the research foundation for listening strategies are rather limited. In terms of increasing the level of success in listening comprehension Metacognitive strategies appears to have the potential (O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Vandergrift 1997). Rubin (1988) carried out a study on high school students who were in the process of learning Spanish as a second language. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of various types of instructions in listening strategies on students’ performance. It involved the use of five groups – three experimental and two control groups. Rubin (1988) sought to determine how each of the five groups comprehended a video. The results suggest that there are a number of listening strategies that can facilitate effective learning when the material that is being used is at a higher level of difficulty. Most importantly, Rubin (1988) found that it was the storyline strategy that helped the experimental groups to do better than the control groups. Therefore, Rubin (1988) concluded that if the appropriate material is combined with effective learning strategies, improvements are possible in the learners affect and motivation. Ross and Rost (1991) carried out a study on Japanese college students who were learning English as a second language. The aim of the study was to develop instruction based on the strategies that these learners employed. They identified the differences in strategies employed by learners who were at a high level of proficiency and those who were at lower levels. Learners were assigned in a random manner to one of three videos and taught strategies that were previously set aside for students who were highly proficient. The results indicate that learners at the lower proficiency levels could improve their ability to listen and comprehend when learning a second language. Thompson and Rubin (1996) in their follow-up study to (Rubin (1988) carried out research on University students to determine the impact of metacognitive and cognitive instruction strategies on the ability of learners of the Russian language. The study involved the use of video clips which the learners viewed and listened to. It study was carried out over two years and involved an experimental and a control group. The experimental group were given instructions in metacognitive and cognitive strategies while the control group received no such instructions. The scores from the pre-test results were compared with the post-test results to determine whether there were improvements. Improvements were seen in the scores for both groups on the post-test results. However, significant improvements were only seen in the scores of those who received listening strategy instructions on how to listen to texts that were recorded on video. Metacognitive awareness was demonstrated by learners who were taught listening strategy. This was seen in the management and selection of the strategies way in which they select. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) carried out research on a group of ESL learners at the intermediate-level in high school. The learners were given a metacognitive, a cognitive and a socio-affective instruction for listening. The performance of the group on a post-listening test was used as a point of comparison with two other groups - a control group that was not taught any strategies and a group that was taught cognitive and socio-affective strategies. Tests were carried out on these groups on a daily basis and the results indicated that the group that was given instructions in strategy performed much better than the control group and the group that was taught metacognitive strategies performed better than the group that was taught cognitive strategies on most of the tests – that is, three out of four tests. The conclusion drawn from this research is that strategy instructions may be effective in improving learners’ ability in the initial stages. Therefore, teachers of second language could do more than just the basics of combining instructions in learning strategy with tasks aimed at improving learners’ ability to listen. Vandergrift (2003) carried out a study on adolescent listeners of French. Major differences were discovered in four strategies: total metacognitive strategy use; comprehension monitoring; questioning elaboration; and online translation (by listeners with the least skills). Successful listeners effectively combined metacognitive and cognitive strategies. These findings were similar to those of Goh (2002). Vandergrift (2004) discovered that the utilisation of metacognitive strategies is not only practiced in second language listening but is also practiced by first language listeners who used to regulate their listening when they need to be attentive. Metacognitive strategies are used in this way in order to prevent interest from waning as well as to enable critical evaluation of what is heard. This emphasises the importance of metacognitive strategies in listening in general and specifically in facilitating listening proficiency. 2.4 Listening strategies and gender White (2008) indicates that gender has the potential to affect language learning and so it cannot be left unnoticed even though it has been neglected by researchers. Research indicates that there are both ‘neurological and hormonal differences’ in the brains of males and females. Legato (2005b; cited in White 2008, p. 74) indicates that in addition to having more nerve cells in the area of the brain where language is centrally located, females appear to utilise more of their brains in both listening and speaking. The female language centres were also found to mature much earlier than male Tyre 2005; cited in Nyikos 2008, p. 74). The tendency for females to accept norms and to gain social approval is a motivation towards obtaining higher scores (Oxford and Nyikos 1989; Nyikos 1990). This great desire forces them to use more social interaction strategies than males. Scores from tests indicated that men and women make use of learning strategies that are in keeping with the learning style with which they have been socialised. Oxford and Nyikos (1989) carried out a study which indicates that females used language learning strategies more often than males. In support of this Kaylani (1996) indicates that the interest shown by females in social activities exceeded that of males. Additionally, females preferred interactions that had a lower level of aggression than that of males. Females were also found to compete less and to cooperate more than males. 2.5 Conclusion Research suggests that learners can improve their performance on listening tasks if they are taught how to strategise (Vandergrift 1999). Listening strategies are not emphasised as those relating to the skills of speaking, reading and writing. Learners encounter a lot of problems in listening comprehension. In regards to this problem, Celce-Murcia et al (1996) indicates that when learners are forced to pay attention to words that have a measure of prominence, differentiate between strong and reduced form, recognise elision and assimilation in producing free speech, then they would be able to deal with the problems associated with listening comprehension. Although studies indicate that gender plays a role in successful use of listening strategies, there is still no consensus on the matter as some research does not take race, economic situation of those studied and factors which could influence the results. However, some researchers still believe that nature and nurture have some level of impact on how females and males utilise listening strategies. The importance of listening cannot be overemphasised. This is the foundation of learning a second language. A sensible discourse is not possible if one or either party does not listen. It is listening that will facilitate the transmission of information as it enables knowledge and understanding. Broersma and Cutler (2011) indicate that ‘the sounds of a second language’ may cause some perceptual difficulty. Strange (1995) also found support for this finding in his work on ‘Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research’. Luchini and Arguello (2009, p. 328) found that this may be a factors because at the time of the implementation of their project the learners did not have a sound ‘knowledge of the segmental sound system of English.’ While the other elements such as speaking, reading and writing are important as Nunan (1999) points out, promoting effective oral discourse is of paramount importance and this can only be attained through the adaptation of the appropriate listening strategies. References Broersma, M and Cutler, A. (2011). Competition dynamics of second-language listening. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(1), p. 74 - 95 Celce-Murcia, M. Brinton, D and Goodwin, J. (1996). Teaching Pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Goh, C. (2002). Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns. System, 30, p. 185 - 206 Griffiths, C. (2008). Strategies and good language learners, in C. Griffiths (Ed.) Lessons for good language learners, p. 73 – 98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Kaylani, C. (1996). The influence of gender and motivation on EFL learning strategy use in Jordan, in R. Oxford (Ed.). Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives. University of Hawaii, Honolulu, p. 75-88. Luchini, P.L and Arguello, M. (2009). Listening skill teaching: some pedagogical considerations. Iranian Journal of Language Studies, 3(3), p. 317 - 344 Mendelsohn, D.J. (1984). There ARE strategies for listening. TEAL Occasional Papers, 8, p. 63 - 76 Mendelson (1994). Learning to listen: A strategy-based approach for the second language learner. San Diego, CA: Dominie Morley, (2001). Aural comprehension instruction: Principles and practices, in M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language, 3rd ed. p. 69 – 85. Nyikos, M (2008). Gender and good language learners, in C. Griffiths (Ed.) Lessons for Good Language Learners, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 73 – 82 Nunan, D. (1997). Listening in language learning. The Language Teacher, 23(9), 47 - 51 Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle O’Malley, J.M and Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Osada, N. (2004). Listening Comprehension Research: A Brief Review of the Past Thirty Years. Dialogue, 3(2004), p. 55 – 66 Oxford, R and Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables Affecting Choice of Language Learning Strategies by University Students. The Modern Language Journal, 73(3), p. 291 – 300. Oxford, R. (1993). Instructional implications of gender differences in language learning styles and strategies. Applied Language Learning, 4, 65-94. Oxford, R.L. (1993). Research update on teaching listening. System, 21, p. 205 - 211 Rivers, W. (1966). Listening comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 50, p. 196 - 204 Rubin, J. (1988). Improving foreign language listening comprehension. (Project No. 017AH70028. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language listening comprehension research. Modern Language Journal,78(2), p. 199 – 221 Thompson, L and Rubin, J. (1996). Can strategy instruction improve listening comprehension? Foreign Language Annals, 29(3), p. 331 - 342 Strange, W. (Ed.). (1995). Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research. Baltimore: York Press. Vandergrift, L. (1997). ‘The strategies of second language (French) listeners: A descriptive study’. Foreign Language Annals 30(3) Vandergrift, L. (1999). Facilitating second language listening comprehension: acquiring successful strategies. ELT Journal, 53(3), p. 168 - 176 Vandergrift, L. (2003). Orchestrating strategy use: Toward a model of the skilled second language listener. Language learning, 53, p. 463 - 496 Vandergrift, L. (2004). Listening to learn or learning to listen? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, p. 3 - 25 White, G. (2008). Listening and good language learners, in C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons for Good Language Learners, 2nd ed. p. 208 – 217. . Read More