What do we know about the literacy skills of American Adolescents and Adults - Research Paper Example

? Literacy Problems of Women in Other Countries This paper examines the literacy problems of women in developing countries. Indeed, in many African and Asian countries, many women do not go to school or are compelled to drop out to take care of domestic chores. This situation exposes women to a high rate of illiteracy in which they face ignorance and serious gender disparities. Aware of these difficult living conditions of women, government officials and international organizations set up adult literacy programs that offer women a second chance to get educated. Because of these adult programs, many women succeed in acquiring literacy that makes it possible for them to get paid jobs, experience empowerment and even contribute to implementing vital government programs. Introduction Education has been a problem for women in developing countries for a long time. Many women do not have access to education in many African and Asian countries. This lack of education is mainly due to cultural and traditional beliefs that motivate parents to keep their daughters at home to take care of domestic chores while boys are encouraged to attend school. This discrimination that starts at home grows and creates serious gender disparities in all aspects of the society. This phenomenon explains the low rates of literacy for women observed in many developing countries. According to David Archer (2006) “Literacy is about the acquisition and use of reading, writing, and numeracy skills, and thereby the development of active citizenship, improved health and livelihoods, and gender equality. The goals of literacy programmes should reflect this understanding.” Unfortunately, many women around the world do not fit in this definition because many of them do not know how to read and write and are still victim of gender disparities. Aware of the high rates of illiteracy for women and their poor living conditions, government officials and international organizations set up adult literacy programs to provide them with some form of literacy. However, despite these problems some success has been noticed when a few women who got the chance to be educated have proven the benefits of women’s literacy. In fact, some studies show that educating women has a positive impact on the health, the demography, the economy, and most importantly literacy leads to women’s empowerment. Archer (2006) confirms this theory when he states that literary has a “dramatic impact on women's self-esteem, empowering them to unlock economic, social, cultural, and political resources.” Low Rates of Literacy for Women Despite various efforts to raise the rates of literacy in many developing countries, the rates are still low, especially for women: “On average throughout the world, 88 women are literate for every 100 men, but only 62 or even as few as 57 women for every 100 men in many countries in Western Asia” (Hinzen, 2007). These low rates explain the gender disparities observed in different aspects. These gender disparities have hindered the efforts to raise the literacy level because men and women are not treated equally. Reflecting on gender issues in Kenya, John Muiru &Mukuria (2005) observe: “Gender bias is deeply rooted in the cultural and traditional values that prescribe roles based on gender and also discriminate against women as far as ownership of property is concerned.” In many patriarchal societies, women undergo real discrimination that puts them at disadvantage compared to men. Aware of the disparity, government officials have tried the reverse the situation: “The struggle to attain gender equity in literacy has led to putting too much emphasis on women as the target group of adult literacy programs” (Muiru & Mukuria, 2005). “Illiteracy is seen as an impediment to adults' successful functioning in daily life, to individual advancement, and to full participation in society. At its worst illiteracy is also associated with ignorance, inability and dependency, all perceived to be characteristic of uneducated or low literate adults” (Walter, 1998). The picture Walter depicts about illiteracy seems to be very gloomy and does not offer any perspective to the millions in the world in this situation. This status represents not only an obstacle to their own personal development but also hinders their contribution to society. Moreover, it also affects their image and rank in the society that labels them as uneducated. One of the goals of the conference about education held in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000 was to achieve a “50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults” (Hinzen, 2007). Reaching such a goal would be beneficial, especially for women whose literacy rates are the lowest. However, even though the officials who attended the conference agreed to the resolution, many countries failed to reach that goal. This example is an illustration for many countries around the world. Literacy and Identity These low rates of literacy for women reflect some traditional and cultural beliefs that exclude women from many sectors of the society. This exclusion justifies the various gender disparities noticed in the systems of many developing countries. Talking about previous research about the gender gap (Eidoo, Ingram, McDonald, Nabayi, & Pashby, 2001) explain: “These findings are a testament to the intransigence of beliefs about gender roles and the lack of political will to make profound changes to address gender inequalities. However, girls and women are not mere victims of global forces and citizenship structures, but rather subjects, citizens, and agents simultaneously.” In certain cultures and traditions, women are only expected to play some assigned roles but not others. The limited roles they are allowed to play in these societies deprive them from real advantages among which equal access to education. These traditional beliefs combined with the lack of political will of governments make women victims of systems that subjugate them and question their identities. Sheila Bunwaree (1997) raises another issue in the Mauritius system in which “education for girls was divided along racial lines. A segregationist policy was enforced in the school. Black or coloured girls were excluded from the school. Only girls from established and wealthy white families were admitted. The white parents threatened to withdraw their daughters if girls from other racial groups were admitted to the school.” In addition to cultural and political challenges, colored women in Mauritius also face racial discrimination that excludes them from the school system. Even the white girls may become victims since their mothers do not allow them to attend school with colored girls. This situation indicates the various problems women face that may prevent them from acquiring literacy. “Although there have been decades of feminist, critical race, and post-colonial critiques of education and citizenship learning, there are still many significant systemic barriers to equality within the educational sphere” (Eidoo et al., 2011). Despite the various struggles and attempts to improve women’s conditions there are still many obstacles to the achievement of this goal. This explains why a total literacy for women around the world still has a long way to go. Adult Literacy Programs When governments in developing countries realize the low rates of literacy, they decide to find an alternative to the problem. They set up some adult programs to give the chance to those who never attended school or dropped out, to acquire some literacy that allows them to read and write. Frances Riemer (2008) presents Boswana’s agents who are “responsible for both recruiting potential adult students and teaching literacy groups, convened their classes under trees, in empty classrooms, or next to workplaces in small and large villages and towns throughout the country.” This non-formal setting indicates the efforts made to encourage people to have access to education regardless of their age. However, these efforts do not go unchallenged and occasionally face serious difficulties. In fact, the gender disparity moves in the classrooms since “some men are not comfortable learning in the same classes with women and especially their wives” (Muiru & Mukuria, 2005). This issue is likely to cause some disturbance in the households where men may prevent their wives or sisters from attending altogether. Their pride does not allow them to be in the same classroom with women, and they feel humiliated. Other economic matters add up to the social ones and hinder the functionality of the adult literacy programs: “With the rising levels of unemployment, many people have given up hope of ever getting a job. Consequently, they refuse to enroll in adult literacy education programs because they do not see the need for education if it will not help them find a job and improve their lot” (Muiru & Mukuria, 2005). The gender disparities and other obstacles prevent women from gaining full access to education. But as more governments and organizations realize the necessity to give women a proper education, they enroll them in adult literacy programs to give them another chance to get some form of literacy. Analyzing adult programs in the third world Chizu Sato (2004) Observes: “Adult literacy training in the context of international social and economic development is often understood as instrumental in women's empowerment and community and national development. That is, participants, increasingly women, are represented as the best means to achieve ends that are identified by somebody else.” Aware of the benefits education may provide women with, many international organizations encourage governments to offer adult programs that are likely to promote women and give them opportunities toward development for themselves, their families and their country. However, implementing these programs requires the good will of officials who believe in the effectiveness of these projects. As David Archer (2006) points out “only governments can ensure that all citizens, including adults, have access to the quality basic education that is their right. Moreover, improved literacy rates will help governments to achieve their own goals for economic growth, gender equality, and poverty reduction.” It is up to government officials to set up these programs, put the necessary means for their success and ensure the quality of the education offered. If these conditions are met, these adults will acquire literacy and become agents of development for their own well-being and that of their nation. Literacy Can Alleviate Poverty Poverty is a serious plague facing many developing countries, and unfortunately women are among the most vulnerable groups threatened by this problem. “The vulnerable groups hardest hit by poverty include women” (Muiru & Mukuria, 2005). This situation of poverty urges many people not to attend school or drop out very early because they cannot afford to continue. In many countries, especially in rural areas, girls prefer to stay at home and take care of domestic chores and older women quit the adult programs to seek for means to improve their living conditions. Poor families usually choose to educate sons than daughters since the latter “may be regarded as an economic burden for the family” because they are expected to leave the family when they get married (Muiru & Mukuria, 2005). Parents do not want to waste the money they invest in their daughters who will leave the household whereas the boys will traditionally stay home and perpetuate the family lineage. That explains why many parents neglect to register girls at school or do not encourage them to stay in case they are already enrolled. This statement shows: “With the existing high levels of poverty, it is hard to promote literacy. Learners in adult literacy programs are forced by poverty to leave the classes to go and look for other ways of supporting their families” (Muiru & Mukuria, 2005). Women’s Literacy Leads to Economic Development The low rates of literacy for women in many African and Asian countries constitute a real obstacle toward economic development. Literacy will bring awareness to women who will make better contributions to society and participate actively in the building of their communities. Keeping women illiterate means to subjugate them into second-class citizens, who will be dependent on men for even their basic need for survival; Commenting on literacy in Mauritius, Bunwaree (1997) argues: “The exclusion of anyone or any group from the development process, especially of women who constitute half the population, would not only mean a drastic loss of human potential but would also have implications for democracy.” To deny women education means to prevent them from gaining access to high qualified jobs that would grant them financial freedom. This exclusion will also deprive the country from half of its economic potential considering the population of women. That’s why Hinzen (2007) calls for an effective enrolment of children, especially girls, in schools that provide a free, compulsory and high quality education. For Bunwaree (1997) “educating women may change them into modern actors” who change and empower their lives. Literacy Leads to Women’s Empowerment Educating women gives them an opportunity to acquire knowledge and information necessary in their everyday life, but it also prepares them to get a job and therefore be financially independent. Having a paid job puts women in a position of power that allows them to enjoy some economic freedom and helps them to participate in the building of nations. Reflecting on women’s conditions in Ethiopia Bernd Sandhaas (2008) observes: “Such women are economically more productive than those who are illiterate particularly in respect to home economics, horticulture and agriculture but also in respect to income generating and small and petty businesses.” Whatever the kind of jobs they hold, in any field, women gain some form of power that allows them to take care of themselves, preserve their dignity without depending on anyone. Commenting on the importance of women’s literacy in Mauritius, Bunwaree (1997) reveals: Specifically, it is asserted that the increased schooling of females: (1) raises their potential earning power and thus provides them with a strong inducement to seek employment; (2) raises their occupational aspirations; (3) changes their attitudes towards women's traditional roles in the household and in the workplace; and (4) provides them with the necessary credentials for employment in many jobs. This is an opportunity literacy grants women who get the chance to have access to an education. Considering the difficult living conditions of women in many developing countries, those who get a paid job are almost emancipated compared to their sisters who are still struggling to gain access to education and other basic need. This new position of women endows them with the possibility to improve their living and working conditions and even sensitize other women about the necessity for change. To confirm this position Md Islam and Mia (2007) reflect: “Education can be upgraded to ensure skills development appropriate for the target group to have wage employment with a reasonable income level.” Women’s Literacy Leads to the Improvement of the Community Education brings awareness to women who will use their literacy for the benefit of the whole community. Literacy provides women with the opportunity to improve their living and working conditions, overcome the gender disparities observed, bring changes into households using their acquired experience, and participate in the general improvement of their communities. Addressing women’s conditions in Nepal and Venezuela, this study informs: “empirical studies seem to have confirmed the Enlightenment conception of formal education as a major pathway for human improvement, and the schooling of women as the most potent ingredient in the pervasive influence of mass education” (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001). This statement foregrounds the importance of women’s literacy and its overwhelming benefit to society. Not only educating women helps to improve the community, but it also encourages more school enrolment because educated women will take a better care for their children’s education. The research concludes: “Schooling, particularly that of females, has beneficial effects, and more schooling brings more benefits to individuals, families, and society at large” (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001). Indeed education gives women an opportunity to acquire some knowledge and information likely to help them, their environment and the society in general. Women’s Literacy Leads to Better Health Without proper education, women will not be able to watch over their own health and that of their children and community. They will not understand the elementary rules that need to be implemented to preserve their health and that of their immediate family. However, women who got the chance to be educated have enough information and skills to follow the basic policies to secure themselves and their children. Commenting on the research conducted on the issue the participants reveal: “All of these findings suggest that maternal participation in bureaucratic health services is a path through which schooling influences reproduction and health - in the clinic, through the public health information media, or through social contacts with those who have been directly influenced by clinic or media exposure” (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001). These findings show that literacy equips women with enough skills to comprehend doctors’ diagnostic and recommendations but also the pharmacists’ directives. This ability to understand, follow and implement basic health rules qualifies women to take care of their health, that of their children, and the whole community. Educated women can not only help their own children but their neighbors who do not understand the basic health rules. Always referring to the research conducted, the authors add: “The results of their quantitative analyses are consistent with the hypothesis that the literacy and language skills that women acquire in school provide an educational pathway to better health care” (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001). This is one of the most important advantages of literacy that can save lives. Considering the high rates of illiteracy in many African and Asian countries, being able to read and interpret basic health care rules participates greatly in the improvement of the healthcare system for women and their whole communities. Women’s Literacy and HIV AIDS Knowing that education provides women with much information to take care of their basic healthcare need, in the same way literacy also prepares them to prevent HIV AIDS and even to handle the treatment in case of infection. Educated women can learn all the possible ways to get infected with HIV AIDS and take their precautions not to get the disease and even sensitize their community about the preventions. Archer (2006) informs: “Literacy is vital for fighting AIDS. The AIDS pandemic is creating a lost generation of orphans and vulnerable children who are growing up without an education.” Many people in developing countries are victim of AIDS that renders many children orphans after they lost their parents from the disease. These fatal deaths could have been prevented if people had a better training and information about the ways to avoid contracting the disease. Giving people, especially women, a proper education will give them a better understanding of AIDS and be prepared to avoid it. Sandhaas (2008) gives the example of Ethiopia, a country hit by the AIDS pandemic, where women’s “practical knowledge” obtained through education prepares them to fight the disease efficiently. The information educated women have about AIDS helps to protect them from the disease and even protect their children from contracting AIDS in case the mothers are already infected. Literacy gives women the opportunity to be aware of the new advancement about the disease that grants patients with a free and efficient treatment that allows them to live with the disease without endangering their lives. Literacy and Demography Women’s literacy has another positive impact in the community in the sense that educated women pay more attention to their families and ensure their safety. They organize their families, choose the number of children they want to have and therefore avoid the risk that many illiterate women face in child mortality or even risky deliveries for mothers. This study shows: Women with more schooling often want smaller families and more schooling for their children than they themselves had, similarly reflecting their elevated aspirations for improvement according to contemporary standards. The impact of schooling on aspirations is a socialization effect in which school experience motivates women to seek higher status. Such a conceptualization is a standard sociological view of schooling. (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001) In so doing they have a better control over their children and can provide them with a better education. Aware of the challenges women face in developing countries, these educated women refuse to indulge in multiple pregnancies that may endanger their lives and that of their children. This wise attitude also helps the governments that struggle to control the population. Reflecting on the research conducted about demography the authors claim: “These studies from the African continent together with our own in Asia and Latin America represent the beginnings of a new body of evidence showing literacy skills to be implicated in the processes by which schooling affects mothers' "uptake" of health and contraceptive services” (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001). The adoption of contraceptive methods saves these mothers the stress of multiple pregnancies and spares their children’s lives. However, this awareness is made possible by the literacy skills they acquired by getting a proper education. Many uneducated mothers in developing countries are not conscious of this opportunity. Women’s literacy becomes an opportunity to reduce child mortality which is a serious issue in many of these countries. Poverty combined with the lack of awareness of the mothers who ignore the basic rules of healthcare expose many children to danger. However, literacy comes at the rescue of these mothers and children by offering people means to reduce child mortality and ensure the safety of the mothers. The research indicates: “In this context, the findings concerning female schooling as a factor in reducing child mortality and fertility were of direct policy relevance” (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001). Because of the role women play in society, their implication is very beneficial since through literacy they save their children’s lives and contribute efficiently in implementing a government policy that prevents child mortality. As this assertion reveals: “The policy question driving recent demographic research on the effects of female schooling has been whether and to what extent low-income countries should invest in the further expansion of women's school attendance as a means of improving the survival, health, and welfare of children and families” (LeVine, LeVine, & Schnell, 2001). Other Forms of Literacy Literacy in one language does not guarantee literacy in another. Indeed, people who are educated in a specific language may struggle in another language they are not familiar with. Talking about South Asian immigrants Walter (1998) argues: “Fluency in written and spoken Chinese, Thai, Lao and Hmong helped these refugee adults to find information about virtually any community resource available to English-literate adults, to study English literacy on their own, and to locate and qualify for jobs not requiring English.” Literacy in their native languages allow them to communicate with their people, conduct research and locate anything they need in their community. However, their unfamiliarity with English puts them in a new situation in which they may be seen as illiterate. Walter (1998) complains: “To classify Southeast Asian low literate adults as low literate solely on the basis of their literacy skills in English is misleading at best. This study clearly demonstrates, at least for this particular pair of adults, that they are highly literate in languages other than English.” Even though these refugees are literate in their languages, their lack of knowledge of the English language costs them to be labeled illiterate. Their literacy in their languages is not questionable and grants them the benefits linked to being educated; however, their displacement exposes them to another form of literacy they do not have any experience about. Another group of Sudanese refugees experience the same problem. Even though they are literate in their native Sudan, their new environments require new tools they are not familiar with. That’s why they need a broker to facilitate their integration in their new community. Commenting about this experience Kristen Perry (2009) informs: “Brokering occurred as individuals who are literate in one language encountered a text in another language. Other researchers, in contrast, have treated brokering in the context of illiteracy, low literacy, or learning disability.” The difference between the language they are literate in and the new one creates a confusion which requires a broker, somebody to facilitate the transition between the languages. To call these refugees illiterate is to question the literacy they acquired in their language; however, this situation demands that any definition of literacy take into account the environment. Continuing her reflection about the Sudanese refugees, Perry (2009) notices: “They experienced these challenges regardless of their own level of experience with formal schooling, likely because all were encountering an educational system that was truly foreign to them, a system that used a foreign language, held foreign expectations, and used foreign genres.” Their displacement puts them in a situation in which they have to learn a new language and a new environment despite their literacy in their own language. Literacy and Information Technology Although the battle to educate women has been long and painful and is still going on in many developing countries, another field emerges that also deserves much attention. Nowadays literacy does not only consist of knowing how to read and write; it also involves the new techniques of communication. Analyzing the conditions of women in Ghana, Olivia Kwapong (2007) observes: “The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is now considered a critical element in the effort to empower rural women because empowerment entails the ability and freedom to make choices in the social, political, and economic arenas.” In order to achieve women’s empowerment, there is a need to train them in the new technologies of communication that will provide them with all the elements they need. Even though this study concerns the rural area, women need to have access to these new tools in order to accomplish a complete literacy. Julia Preece (2006) also advocates the use of ICT in order to provide women with all the information they need for their emancipation. The use of ICT guarantees women a prompt communication and access to new information that may participate in their empowerment. However, Kwapong (2007) sees the high rates of illiteracy of women as an obstacle to the use of ICT. In fact, even though efforts have been made to educate women, the rates of illiteracy for women are still very high. Basic education is necessary before any attempt to use ICT. Foregrounding the importance of information, Kwapong (2007)states: “While an illiterate household naturally would depend on the radio and extension visits for information, a literate household has the additional source of information delivered through extension bulletins, and other printed sources.” This comparison between households indicates the degree and nature of the information each family may have depending on their education. Literacy has been one of the main problems facing women from developing countries. This lack of education exposes them to gender disparities, poverty and difficult living conditions. The low rates of literacy for women in many African and Asian countries reveal the subjugation they suffer from and their status of second-class citizens. However, given the chance to enroll in adult literacy programs, these women prove they are worth the trust placed in them and demonstrate their ability to succeed, improve their living conditions but also contribute in the development of their nations. To achieve the empowerment they deserve women have to engage in a serious battle against gender disparities. Analyzing the difficult conditions of women in Bolivia, Amy Lind (2003) reveals: “An irony of these women's efforts is that the women are fighting for access to resources, and thus access to development, as well as against it, in the sense that they are opposed to development policies that do not lead to equitable distributions of wealth and resources in Bolivian society.” These women do want resources; however, they fight any policy that expresses gender disparities and does not treat women equally. References Archer, D. (2006). Writing the wrongs: Invest in adult literacy now! Convergence, 39 (2/3), 19- 29. 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