Young Offenders, Crime, and Globalization - Essay Example

Young Offenders, Crime, and Globalization Globalization has become an increasing force in an ever-changing world, as the Internet seems to connect more and more people to each other at a faster and faster rate. As such, the rate of information exchange and communication is at an all-time high. These factors in globalization have caused many different reforms in attitudes as more and more cultures interact with each other. One of the attitudes that is slowly evolving globally is that of handling juvenile delinquents. Because of the increase in technology, more and more countries are looking toward western approaches to handling young offenders. This means that punishments have evolved over the world and have begun to focus more and more on western attitudes. Media has also helped to spread this assumption, as some atrocious cases involving young children have been spread worldwide. Often times those of the western mindset felt that the punishment did not fit the crime, and therefore, more and more pressure has been put on various countries to reform their approach to treating young criminals. This is not to say that young criminals should not be punished at all. Punishment is an important fact in the learning process for juveniles. In order to understand how this punishment process works, it is important to take a closer look at juvenile justice in western ideology, primarily in America. Juvenile delinquency is often an issue of concern among parents, educators, and society in general. A review by Cohn (2003) outlines statistics in regards to juvenile delinquency. In the year 2000, juveniles accounted for 17 percent of all arrests and 16 percent of all violent crime arrests in the United States that year. A considerable growth in the number of juvenile violent crime arrests began in the late 1980s and reached its peak in 1994. However, 2000 marked the sixth consecutive year that the rate juvenile arrests for the Violent Crime Index Declined. The timeframe between 1994 and 2000 marked a 41 percent decrease in the juvenile arrest rate, which was the lowest since 1985. The juvenile murder rate also decreased dramatically between 1993 and 2000, by a mark of 74%. The juvenile murder rate in 2000 was at its lowest since the 1960s. In the year 2000, juveniles were involved in 9 percent of murder arrests, 14 percent of aggravated assault arrests, 33 percent of arrests for burglary, 25 percent of robbery arrests, and 24 percent of arrests for weapons charges. Girls were involved in one-third of all arrests of young people ages 13-15. The racial composition of the juvenile population in general was 79 percent white (including Hispanics), 16 percent black, 4 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, and 1 Percent American Indian. Of all juvenile arrests for violent crimes, 55 percent involved white youths and 42 percent blacks. These numbers are extremely disproportionate the racial groups' representation in the general population. Even though the facts point to a decrease in acts of juvenile delinquency, it still remains a cause for concern, and its causes and prevention must be addressed. Another item to consider is that fact that casual factors in juvenile delinquency seem to be consistent throughout the world as far as what the theories are behind the crimes. Therefore, globalization has helped to bring this concept to light. What are the causal factors involved in juvenile delinquency There has been continuous debate and extensive research concerning this question. Some purport that juvenile delinquency is biologically determined, and that anything short of pharmacological intervention has any beneficial effect. Others claim that environment plays the key role in determining whether a young person is likely to commit delinquent acts, and that changes in the environment result in changes in regards to delinquent behavior. Yet another perspective claims that delinquent behavior stems from psychopathological problems that are present due to various factors, and that a combination of therapy and drugs is the most effective intervention. Which perspective is the most accurate The fact of the matter is that juvenile delinquency is a complex issue that cannot simply be explained in black and white terms. Several factors converge to determine whether a young person displays anti-social behavior, and the expression of these factors varies from individual to individual. Globalization has helped to place an increasing emphasis on this fact, and these theories and considerations have become widely accepted throughout the world. There have been several factors cited as being potentially causal in their relationship to juvenile delinquency. These factors have come to light and the information has been spread in this increasingly globalized world, thus helping to gain a greater understanding of why children commit crimes, and how different communities around the globe can help to prevent juvenile crime in the future. In regards to psychological factors, personality issues as well as social competence have been cited as potential causes. In the realm of personality, it has been suggested that, compared to non-delinquents, delinquents are more extroverted, neurotic, and tough-minded, which is related to psyhoticism. This last factor is a combination of low agreeableness and low conscientiousness, which together with extroversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience are known as Eyesenck's Big Five personality factors (Laak et al., 2003). It has also been suggested that low self-control is a good predictor of crime (Laak et al., 2003). Low self-control includes the following defining factors: lack of resistance to immediate gratification, impulsiveness, insensitiveness, physical risk taking, shortsightedness, and being unable to express problems. These are all considered to be stable individual characteristics, and these theories have become more widely accepted across the world through the process of globalization. In regards to social competence factors in delinquents, juvenile delinquents have been found to lack the social skills necessary to solve interpersonal problems (Laak, 2003). Again, these factors have been true for young criminals worldwide, and the globalized world has allowed for various cultures to share their information and studies regarding these issues. For instance, delinquent adolescent girls were found to resolve their social problems less adequately than a comparable non-delinquent group. However, it has also been suggested by some theorists, such as Eyesenck, that some delinquents are in fact more, not less, socially competent than their average counterpart (Laak, 2003). Furthermore, successful delinquents need a mastery of social, organizational, and computational skills to estimate the risks involved in criminal acts. It is reasonable to conclude that adolescent criminality involves some rational decision-making processes. Overall, some personality factors and aspects of social competence can predict juvenile delinquency (Laak, 2003). Since these facts have been presented worldwide, the now globalized world is placing increasing emphasis on social factors as far as young offenders are concerned. In addition, different aspects of parenting, father absence, and affiliation with delinquent peers have been found to affect juvenile delinquent behavior. Again, the globalized world has helped to demonstrate that these factors hold true across the world, and therefore, more and more countries are taking these factors into consideration. A study conducted by Paschall et al. (2003) found that mothers' perceived control of sons' behavior was a deterrent to delinquent behavior, while other aspects of parenting, like communication, were not. Also, the effects of mothers' perceived control were not mediated by adolescents' affiliation with delinquent peers. Socio-economic disadvantage was found to be strongly associated with delinquent behavior in families that lacked the presence of a father. Moreover, The adolescents in the study were less likely to engage in delinquent behavior if they were closely supervised and monitored by their parents. In general, poor parental monitoring and supervision, harsh and/or inconsistent disciplinary practices, infrequent parent-adolescent communication, and poor parent-adolescent relations have all been associated with increased levels of juvenile delinquency (Paschall, et al., 2003). The globalized world has also made note of another problem common in young offenders; that of "the wrong crowd." Countries around the globe report that children seem to be a reflection of those they spend their time with. Affiliation with delinquent peers may be a prominent determinant of juvenile delinquency (Paschall, et al., 2003). Research has provided evidence both supporting and against this assertion. However, problem behavior theory, as well as other models of juvenile delinquency, indicates that peer affiliation in fact mediates the relationship between parenting and delinquent behavior (Paschall et al., 2003). A survey documenting self-reported delinquency among youth in Alberta provides indication of possible determinants of juvenile delinquency (Comes et al., 2003). In this survey, statistically significant results were found for relationships between extent of delinquency and gender, grade level, psychosocial problems (as indicated by conduct, hyperactivity, and emotional problems), and extent of past-year victimization. Females were comparable to males for low/moderate delinquency, and were rated slightly higher for low/moderate violence-related delinquency. Younger students in the survey were more likely to report violence-related delinquency, while older students were more likely to report property-related delinquency. Over all, the highest rates of delinquent acts were seen among grade nine students. In regards to personal characteristics, a high rating on conduct problems was most strongly associated with moderate/high delinquency. Moreover, the relationship between high delinquency levels and victimization was stronger for violence-related delinquency than for property-related delinquency. Studies similar to this one have been performed throughout the globe and have concluded similar results. Therefore, the globalized world is allowing for greater communication sharing as far as young offenders are concerned. The age at which adolescents start performing delinquent acts has been shown to play an important role in recidivism, and this has been true around the world and throughout many cultures. Ge et al. (2003) conducted a study to explore differences in personality and patterns of recidivism between with an early incidence of offending and those that started committing offences later. Early starters were found to be significantly deference from later starters in several personality characteristics. The early starters scored lower on the responsibility and socialization scales, and higher on paranoia, schizophrenia, and hypomania scales. These early starters were also at a significantly higher risk for recidivism than late starters, both in the short and long terms. The sharing of this information across the globe has demonstrated that the concept stays true from culture to culture. Another study aimed at examining the role that alcoholism played in juvenile delinquent behavior (Barnow et al., 2002). Globalization has also helped to demonstrate that different types of substance abuse tend to predict a youth's ability to offend. The results of this study indicated that offspring of parents with alcohol problems had significantly more problems with aggression and delinquency, more perceived parental rejection and less emotional warmth, a higher amount of alcohol consumption, were more likely to associate with substance-using peers, and more often received diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder or conduct disorder. Another problem with young offenders, recognized globally, is the overall mental health of the child. All over the world, it is becoming more and more recognized that many of these children are mentally ill and require psychology help. Juvenile delinquents often suffer from one of many psychiatric disorders. Ruchkin et al. (2003) investigated the occurrence of psychopathology among incarcerated Russian juvenile delinquents in relation to the age at onset of conduct problems. The results of this study indicated that 73.2% of the juvenile delinquents met criteria for conduct disorder, and 23.5% of the total sample reported at the presence of at least one criterion for conduct disorder before the age of 10 years. In this early-onset group, all participants fulfilled the criteria for conduct disorder. This early-onset group also demonstrated higher rates of psychopathology, and particularly of externalizing behaviors, in comparison to adolescents whose conduct disorder began after the age of 10 years. The researchers of this study concluded that poor psychosocial adaptation and the future prognoses of juvenile delinquents with early-onset conduct disorder may be related to their greater degree of psychopathology compared with juvenile delinquents with later-onset conduct disorder. Moreover, psychiatric treatment needs to be considered for the prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency. Nutrition also plays a key role. Since many developing countries do not provide their children with proper nutrition due to lack of money, this focus has been a revelation in poorer areas of the world. Again, this shows to demonstrate that globalization has had an effect on the opinions of others' toward young offenders. A study examining nutritional causes of delinquency notes that violence and serious antisocial delinquent behaviors have been cut virtually in half after the implementation of nutrient-dense diets (Schoenthaler & Bier, 2000). This study sought to determine whether these observed behavioural improvements were psychological or biological in nature, by comparing the behavior of offenders who received eitherplacebos or vitamin-mineral supplements designed to provide the nutritional equivalent of a well-balanced diet. Results indicated that the 40 children who received active tablets were disciplined at a rate that was 47% lower than that of the 40 children that received placebos. The children who took active tablets showed lower rates of 8 types of antisocial behaviors, including threats/fighting, being disrespectful, disorderly conduct, vandalism, defiance, obscenities, refusal to work or serve, endangering others, and other non-specified offences. The researchers concluded that poor nutrition in children that lead to low concentrations of water-soluble vitamins in blood impair brain function and therefore cause delinquent behavior. Correction of nutrient intake through diet or supplements corrects the low concentration of vitamins in the blood and improves brain function, which in turn results in a reduction of delinquent behavior among adolescents. So, what can be done Since globalization has helped to share information about young offenders and their personalities, it has also helped to share information about trying to find solutions to the problem. It is important to look towards possible intervention measures to treat or prevent juvenile delinquency. A report by Reynolds et al. (2003) commented on the importance of preschool for the prevention of future delinquent behavior. Participation in preschool was associated with significantly higher levels of school readiness, achievment, and educational attainment, and was associated with lower rates of child maltreatment, juvenile delinquency, special education placement and grade retention. The researchers suggest that large-scale public, early interventions can enhance the well-being of children. There is a continual challenge in the realms of juvenile justice and child psychiatry to meet the mental health needs of juvenile delinquents (Thomas & Penn, 2002). The system is overloaded with increased volume of juvenile delinquency cases, more complex issued youth and families with co-occurring psychiatric, medical, substance abuse problems, multifaceted psychosocial issues, and diminishing community resources and alternatives to confinement. There is a crucial need for improved prevention and treatment methods for juvenile delinquents and for adolescents at risk of delinquency. One prevention method that is used world wide in the attempts of deterring at-risk adolescents from committing offences involves the use of scare tactics. "Scared Straight" and other programs like it involve organized visits to correctional institutions by juvenile delinquents and adolescents at risk of criminal behavior (Petrosino et al., 2003). These programs are designed to prevent these adolescents from first time offences or future offences through the observation of life in prison and through interactions with adult inmates. Petrosino et al. (2003) conducted a study to assess the effectiveness of such programs in preventing offences among the adolescent participants. The results of their study indicated that these scare-tactic type programs actually were more harmful than participation in no program at all. Therefore, the researchers concluded that these prevention programs were ineffective, and that agencies that permit such programs need to rigorously evaluate whether they are the best available means of prevention. If this type of prevention strategy has been proven to be ineffective, what other options are there Nation et al. (2003) recognized that the high prevalence of drug abuse, delinquency, youth violence, and other youth problems creates the need to determine and administer effective prevention programs. These researcher identified 9 characteristics that were consistently associated with effective prevention programs including comprehensiveness, varied teaching methods, sufficient dosage, theory driven, opportunities for positive relationships, appropriate timing, socio-cultural relevance, outcome evaluations, and the involvement of well-trained staff. These characteristics could help form the basis of effective prevention programs, or could serve the basis for further research into juvenile delinquency. Once incarcerated, it is important to focus on what the most effective means are for the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents. Research has shown several factors that seem to be involved in the effective treatment of youth that commit criminal offences. A study by Andrews and Andrews (2003) examined the suitability of sporting activities as a primary means for, and mechanism of, rehabilitation. The researchers found the use of sporting activities that do not emphasize rules and winning were most beneficial. Also, the researchers emphasize choice for the participants, adaptation of the programs to meet individual needs, and positive feedback as factors essential for beneficial sporting activities. Overall, sporting activities were found to have an effective and important role in the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents. Thomas and Penn (2002) explain how the recognition of high rates of mental disorders among incarcerated juvenile delinquents has spurred recommendations for the improvement and reform of mental health services now in place. These authors suggest that all adolescents that come in contact with the juvenile justice system should be screened and, if necessary, assessed for psychiatric and substance abuse disorders. Screening should occur at the earliest possible point, and should be continually available throughout the juvenile justice process. The authors also suggest that adolescents exhibiting serious psychiatric disorders should be diverted from the juvenile justice system in order for them to receive the rehabilitation they need. The efficacy of a screening measure called the Massachussets Youth Screening Inventory - second edition (MAYSI-2) was assessed by Stewart & Trupin (2003). The researchers evaluated the ability of this measure to identify adolescents with mental disorders and comorbid substance abuse problems. The relationship of these symptoms to the use of treatment both before and after intake to the juvenile justice system was also examined. The results of this study indicated that adolescents that reported a high level of psychiatric symptoms, with or without comorbid substance abuse problems, were more likely to have received previous psychiatric treatment than youths with a low level of psychiatric symptoms. They also found that youths with high levels of psychiatric symptoms were more likely than youths with low levels of psychiatric symptoms to receive severe sentences, and were therefore less likely to qualify for community transition programs. Based on these findings, the researchers concluded the MAYSI-2 is useful in identifying adolescents in the juvenile justice system that have mental health problems, and therefore this measure has important implications for the treatment and rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents. Overall, if juvenile delinquents do not receive the necessary evaluation, treatment, and rehabilitation, there are great dangers of future incarcerations in adult correctional institutions (Thomas & Penn, 2002). Reducing future offences among juvenile delinquents must be focused upon in methods of treatment, rehabilitation, and sentencing. Mason et al. (2003) conducted a study that examined the effectiveness of a program intending to reduce re-offending among juvenile delinquents transferred to adult court in Florida. The researchers explained that the Juvenile Sentencing Advocacy Project (JSAP) worked to increase the degree to which professionals involved in sentencing, such as lawyers, prosecutors, judges and law enforcement officers, considered the developmental status of the young offenders, the context of their offences, and their potential for rehabilitation. The goal of this project was to increase the use of juvenile sanctions and avoid traditional adult sentences. The researchers predicted that increased use of juvenile sanctions would result in a reduction of re-offences by the adolescents. Through the use of epidemiological measures, the results of the study indicated that the use of juvenile sanctions significantly increased following the implementation of JSAP and that youth receiving other types of sentencing, such as adult probation or boot camp, were 1.74 to 2.29 times more likely to re-offend than were adolescents receiving juvenile sanctions. The observed increased use of juvenile sanctions corresponded to an 11.2% to 15.3% decrease in re-offences in youth that were anticipated to re-offend using other forms of sentencing. There are several factors that contribute to the likeliness and extent to which adolescents display delinquent behaviors. These factors are social, psychological, environmental, biological and age-related in nature. The research findings in regard to these factors help to increase understanding and awareness of the causes of juvenile delinquency, and steps that can be taken in treatment and prevention. Juvenile delinquency is a complex phenomenon, which requires a broad scope and diverse perspectives for full comprehension. References Andrews, J. & Andrews, G. "Life in a Secure Unit: The Rehabilitation of Young People Through the Use of Sport." Social Science & Medicine 56.3 (2003): 531-550. Barnow, S., Schuckit, M., Lucht, M., John, U., Frewberger, H. "The Importance of a Positive Family History of Alcoholism, Parental Rejection and Emotional Warmth, Behavioral Problems and Peer Substance Use for Alcohol Problems in Teenagers: A Path Analysis." Journal of Studies in Alcoholism 63.3 (2002): 305-15. Cohn, A. "Juvenile Focus." Federal Probation 67.1 (2003): 58-62. Comes, J., Bertrand, L., Paetseh, J., Hornick, J. "Self-Reported Delinquency Among Alberta's Youth: Findings From a Survey of 2,001 Junior and Senior High School Students." Adolescence 38.149 (2003):149-224. Ge, X., Donnellan, M, Wenk, E. "Differences in Personality and Patterns of Recidivism Between Early Starters and Other Serious Male Offenders." Journal of American Academic Psychiatry and Law 31.1 (2003): 68-77. Laak, J., de Goede, M., Aleva, L., Brugman, G., van Leuven, M., Hussman, J. "Incarcerated Adolescent Girls: Personality, Social Competence, and Delinquency." Adolescence 38.150 (2003): 251-66. Mason, C., Chapman, D., Chang S., Simons, J. "Impacting Re-Arrest Rate Among Youth Sentenced in Adult Court: An Epidemiolgical Examination of the Juvenile Sentencing Advocacy Project." Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 32.2 (2003): 205-14. Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K., Seybolt, D., Morissey-Kane, E., Davino, K. "What Works in Prevention. Principles of Effective Prevention Programs." American Psychology 58.6-7 (2003): 449-56. Paschall, M., Ringwalt, C., Flewelling, R. "Effects of Parenting, Father Absence, and Affiliation with Delinquent Peers on Delinquent Behavior Among African-American Male Adolescents." Adolescence 38.149 (2003): 15-35. Petrosino, A., Turpin-Petrosino, C., Buehler, J. "'Scared Straight' and Other Juvenile Awareness Programs for Preventing Juvenile Delinquency." Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2 (2002): CD002796. Reynolds, A., Temple, J., Suh-Ruu, O. "School Based Early Intervention and Child Well-Being in the Chicago Longitudinal Study." Child Welfare 82.5 (2003): 633-87. Ruchkin, V., Koposov, R., Vermeiren, R., Schwab-Stone, M. "Psychopathology and Age at Onset of Conduct Problems in Juvenile Delinquents." Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 64.8 (2003): 913-20. Schoenthaler, S. & Bier, I. "The Effect of Vitamin-Mineral Supplementation on Juvenile Delinquency Among American Schoolchildren: A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial." Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 6.1 (2000): 7-17. Stewart, D. & Trupin, E. "Clinical Utility and Policy Implications of a Statewide Mental Health Screening Process for Juvenile Offenders." Psychiatric Services 54.3 (2003):377-82. Thomas, C. & Penn, J. "Juvenile Justice Mental Health Services." Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 11.4 (2002): 731-48. Read More