Problem of Strip Mining and Use of Lignite - Term Paper Example

Land-Use Planning: Problem of Strip Mining and Power-Related Use of Lignite al Affiliation Summary Lignite is a mineral resource that is majorly utilized in the energy sector, as a fuel source in power generation. Unlike other forms of coal, it is found nearer the surface area, hence the necessity of employing surface-mining techniques. The most preferable in this context is strip-mining, which has various influences and effects on the environment, which pose potential negative impacts. Environmentalists when viewing the mining sector, have a common worry of ‘acid mine drainage’; especially concerning strip mining. The aspect is informed by the fact that acid mine drainage is mainly characterized by the presence of high metal cation concentrates and low pH; which affect surface waters present. With the potential of generating acidic waters, because of exposure to oxidizing atmospheric conditions, it is therefore understandable on the part of environmentalists being cautious. In addition, is the ever-present nature of human health impacts and effects; especially based on their sources of drinking water. It is generally pre-supposed that aquifers and other water systems are inter-connected. Hence, in the case of such mining activities, there is a potential of such delicate systems being polluted. Drinking water (for human consumption as well as animal feeding) would be impacted upon. In addition would be the greater negative effect on the pre-present bio-diversity; affecting negatively on the existing flora and fauna. Air pollution would also be present, especially from the dust spewed and waste materials exposed in such mining processes. Fundamentally so is the fact that while reclamation is possible, it is the long-duration of time that is of concern; further worsened by the fact that such land is never as fertile and productive as before the mining process itself. Great reasoning is essential before making such a decision that is likely to influence a greater population, as well as surrounding environmental eco-systems. Land-Use Planning: Problem of Strip Mining and Power-Related Use of Lignite Lignite as a Mineral Resource: An Introduction Lignite, as a mineral resource, is also referred to as brown coal, a soft brown sedimentary rock which being combustible, is naturally formed from peat, which has undergone gradual compression. While considered the lowest in rank amongst the fossil fuel types because of its somewhat low heat content, it continues to enjoy considerable attention given the various regional areas in which it is mined. Mined in Europe and North America, as well as Australia and India, as Ghassemi (2001) portrays, lignite is exclusively utilized as a fossil fuel especially in various steam-electric power generating facilities. As an example of the mineral’s value and human utility, is the fact that Germany utilizes the mineral, for roughly 25.7% of its total electricity generation. In other less developed European nations such as Greece, lignite provide about half of its overall power needs. Though an essential fossil fuel, it is the nature of its extraction, which continues to worry environmentalists; fundamentally influencing different nation’s mining activities. The issue is promoted by the fact that the fossil fuel is composed of estimated 25-35% carbon content, ash content of 6-19%, bituminous coal of 12% and an inherent high content of moisture. With a high percentage of volatile matter, it is easier to convert it into gas, as well as liquid petroleum products as opposed to its higher-ranking coal varieties. It is the high moisture content factor that is also influential in making the mineral susceptible to spontaneous combustion especially during transportation and or storage (Ghassemi, 2001). Due to its low energy density, as well as typically high content of moisture, lignite is inefficient to transport, hence its low trade volumes throughout the world. Strip Mining of Lignite However, it is used extensively near the mines i.e. Texas’ Monticello plant, and Australia’s Latrobe Valley. As Blatt, Middleton and Murray (1972) asserts, it is primarily because of the high concentrate of latent moisture content that such stations are responsible for generating higher carbon dioxide emissions. The aspect is in addition to the various other pollutants that result in pollution of both air and water systems. Lignite is found in two distinct forms i.e. fossil wood (xyloid lignite) and perfect/ compact lignite. The first, while appearing to resemble wood, it is utilized through trituration, where it is reduced to fine powder. When further submitted to a catalyst reaction of a weak solution of potash, what is generated is a considerable quantity of ulmic acid. Its composition is mainly because of the accumulation of peat, which is partly decayed plant material. Because of the increase in pressure and temperature, depending on both tectonic settings and geothermal gradient present within the locality, pleat is formed. This occurs through compaction of decomposing material, as well as loss of some amount of volatile material i.e. carbon dioxide and methane, and water. Referred to as coalification, this process increases the existing carbon content, thereby influencing the heat content of the forming fossil fuel. Therefore, if such matter is buried deeper in the ground, as well as concealed for a longer time, there is greater expulsion of both volatile matter and moisture. This issue results in the formation of higher rank coals i.e. anthracite and bituminous coal. Lignite deposits are naturally younger, in terms of buried period of time with a majority being traceable to the Tertiary period (Blatt, Middleton & Murray, 1972). An Environmental Problem: Risks, Impacts and Effects Problems exist in the form of environmental issues, as the main form of mining lignite, is by way of strip mining; also regarded to as surface mining. In the current contexts, where the consortium of mining companies wants to extract lignite in a greatly bio-diverse region equated to the Saskatchewan region, great concern is raised because of the potential threats of pollution. The region, as Macdonald (2006) portrays is a bio-diverse arena, having grasslands, aspen parkland and forest cover as its three distinguishing characteristics. Geologically, the area has two distinct regions i.e. the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (Phanerozoic) and the Canadian/ Pre-Cambrian shield. Far removed from any moderating effects of different large water bodies, the region’s temperature is more towards continental climate. This issue influences the different cold winters, and hot summers; annual temperature ranging up to 650 C. Cold winters witness a drop of temperature below freezing point. As a dip slop of the Manitoba Escarpment, it is primarily underlain by marine shales (traceable to the Cretaceous Age) with its marine bedrock being covered by glacial deposits. The predominant factor is the presence of till-plains and hummocky moraines to some extent, also the presence of flat deposits from extinct glacial lakes. Having various hilly ranges, the area in question, is blessed with different mineral resources just as is the Saskatchewan region aforementioned. In terms of biodiversity and environmental uniqueness, the area in focus is rich in both fauna and flora; supported by the different aquifers, river basins and water bodies. The eco-regions present, occupy large water and land areas, hence the concern about strip-mining (Macdonald, 2006). The concern is about not only the environment, but also the living organisms present, which are supported by the delicate eco-system present. Lignite is found in four main seams, each of which could count to several meters in thickness. They are separated by vertical sequencing of weak consolidated fine-grained sandstones or siltstones this stratification being replicated horizontally over a greater area. The land surface is flat lying, with gentle undulating in some places. The aspect provides prospective mining companies with a lucrative region, as the lignite seams are not very deep; with surface exposure occurring in some places. Comprising of considerably thin soil layers that rest on glacial clays and sands, the best-proposed avenue of lignite exploitation would be via varying strip-mining techniques. Due to the aforementioned characteristics of the mineral, the consortium plans to also construct, and subsequently operate a power station within the area. The issue is seen as a positive outcome of the mining process, to benefit the residents and region at large. The greatest benefit will however emanate from the taxes and revenues accrued from the mining project which being weighted against environmental concerns, results in the current debate. Strip mining, as Dwight & Diana (2010) portray, pertains to the removal of a seam of mineral deposits, first through the removal of a long strip of overlying rock and soil (overburden); practical only in contexts where the ore body that is to be excavated, is near the surface. Such mining utilizes some of the biggest machines in the world i.e. the bucket-wheel excavator that is able to move many tones of earth per hour. It is mainly carried out in two forms – area stripping (the common method of extraction) for fairly flat terrain, and contour stripping. The latter involves the removal of overburden, above existing mineral seams (especially in hilly terrain outcrops) where such mineral outcrops mostly follow the land contours. Due to the technicality, involved, contour stripping is mostly followed by auger mining; extraction happening into the hillside, thereby commonly leaving behind mountainside terraces (Dwight & Diana, 2010). Controversy prevails because of this form of surface mining, as the existing vegetation, topography and water resources can/ are potentially impacted negatively. Thus, it is subjective to both federal and state reclamation requirements, with these however being a source of constant contention. Reclamation is vital because such land is usually composed primarily of waste rock; due to a rough 70% of all excavated material being waste. Accordingly, in the U.S., as would be found in other regional arenas, there are laws, rules, regulations and standards in place; to guide on issues related to mining. The – Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977) – of the U.S. mandates that reclamation should be conducted as part of mining companies’ social responsibility role-play. In regions, which are hilly or mountainous, as Hangen et al. (2005) allude, such a form of mining is usually negative, in terms of environmental impacts. The issue is especially in the case of mountaintop mining, where existing mitigation practices have yet to s address such problem successfully. An example is the fact that where valley fills are present, there is a higher likelihood of frequent burying of headwater streams. The issue inadvertently results in the permanent loss of prevailing eco-systems vital in maintaining the existing environmental flora and fauna. More to this is the issue of large tracts of forests being affected thereby threatening various endangered species because of loss of bio-diversity. Water systems in the area i.e. two main river channels, as well as ground water emanating from shallow aquifers is also threatened (Hangen et al., 2005). These provide water that is crucial in irrigation and livestock keeping, as well as human domestic utility. Due to the processes involved as Mercier (2011) avers, where both confined and unconfined aquifers are usually both de-saturated and subsequently de-pressurized so that the mining process may commence, the water-systems present are a major issue of contention. Valuable rangeland, as well as agricultural land is also under threat, due to the removal of top soil layers; with reclamation processes taking a while to reverse effects to the optimal levels. In addition to this is the very serious issue of human health impacts because of not only the mining process at large, but also the means of land reclamation. A majority of mining firms subsequently utilize human sewage sludge as a preferred means in the land reclamation process. Human health is also affected through air pollution, as well as water degradation from ‘acidic pollution.’ The processes involved, usually result in various pollutants being released, with major concern being their effects on prevailing eco-systems. All the aforementioned, provide information on the prevailing contexts of the area under focus the pros and cons of mining and subsequent data, essential in making the final decision (Mercier, 2011). Economically, there will be need to weigh on the benefits of mining vis-à-vis other alternatives; especially the – Do Nothing option. What informs the latter is the fact that the best/ optimal avenue of mining lignite is usually via strip-mining; where contention still remains up to date, on issues of environment and human health influences. Alternative Solutions Lignite mining is usually an extensive affair, requiring some of the largest machinery on the planet. Primarily necessitating the removal of top layers of soil (the overburden), the effects are of great impact to the environment concerned. Coal is primarily mined by way of excavation i.e. high-wall mining, mountaintop removal and open-pit mining. In addition, an alternative that is most preferred by environmentalists is the – Do Nothing Policy option. The basis of this is the understanding that any form of intense mining activity is most likely to impact negatively on the greater environment and eco-systems present. The main economic activity being agricultural-based, it is the latter option that is the best way forward. If not, the mining activity will necessitate not only human displacement, but also environmental degradation (Goovaerts, 1997). Analysis of These Alternative Solutions High-wall mining is preferable, as an innovative roadmap for future coal mining processes. Effective in hilly regions, it evolved from the auger mining technique, where existing coal seams are penetrated by continuous miner machinery that is propelled by a PTM – Pushbeam Transfer Mechanism. In a typical cycle, there is the launch-pushing forward (sumping) phase, followed by shearing; which essentially raises and lowers the cutterhead boom. The issue results in an entire height of a coal seam being extracted, to be removed to the surface by way of conveyance process. Through contour stripping, extraction is possible, yielding rates of thousands of tones. The recovery process is better off than that of Augering; abate the non-rigorous mapping of affected areas. As opposed to mountaintop removal, in this technique, very little soil is displaced. Both techniques are applicable only on hilly regions, as well as mountaintop removal (Gardner & Sainato, 2007). The latter as Palmer et al., (2010) avers, is more impactful because of the use of explosives in the blasting of overburden. There is the presence of excess mining waste, which is usually dumped into fills; found in nearby valley or hollow fills. Involving the mass restructuring of existing earth as an avenue to reach existing coal seams, most of which are deep within, mountaintop removal results in the replacement of original steep landscape with much flatter topography. It is these profound changes, as well as disturbances of the environment, which make it very controversial. Water bodies and catchment areas may become negatively affected, due to pollution by higher levels of minerals. Burial of streams and aquifers further results in the decrease of aquatic bio-diversity, in addition to the blasting that results in the spewing of fly-rocks and dust into the air. Sulfur compounds may be found in such environments, posing a potential health hazard. Reclamation processes often involve the utility of non-native, quick-growing grasses, which compete with seedlings for space. As a result, pre-existing bio-diversity does suffer, influencing both flora and fauna. Land reclamation in this type of mining, is more traditional-focused, aiming at the stabilization of existing rock structures as well as the control of erosion. The issue is as opposed to the greater agenda of reforestation. Erosion is however more likely to increase, at times resulting in the intensification of flooding (Palmer et al, 2010). Evaluation In an agricultural-inclined region such as the area in focus, primarily dependent on livestock keeping, as well as cereal growing in the flatter areas. Being hilly in some areas, it is also forested to some extent, essential in maintaining the aquifers and river system present. In terms of mining, none of the aforementioned techniques would be suitable to the area if the local populations are to maintain their primary way of life i.e. farming and livestock keeping. Further still, is the negative influence and effects on the pre-existing environment in general, as reclamation processes take many years in addition to not being satisfactory in their greater aims of ‘normalizing’ affected areas. Nevertheless, it is essential to note that if the commercial viability of the mineral resource greatly outweighs the environmental implications vis-à-vis human impacts, then the regional administration may consider such activity. This is, of course, after affirmation from the local community, as well as their adequate compensation given that the population present is small and spatially placed (Venburg, 1983). If the converse is true i.e. the region is densely populated, or close in proximity to such areas, then the cost of human inconveniences, as well as environmental impacts and degradation, outweigh the benefits to be accrued. In such a scenario, I would prefer the ‘Do Nothing’ policy. References Bituminous coal and Lignite surface mining. (2014). Encyclopedia of Business: Mining (2nd Ed.), retrieved from: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/industries/Mining/Bituminous-Coal-Lignite-Surface-Mining.html Blatt, H., Middleton, G. & Murray, R. (1972). Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Dwight, F.H. & Diana J.K. (12 June, 2010). Coal and Lignite Mining. Handbook of Texas Online, retrieved from: http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/dkc03 Gardner, J.S. & Sainato, P. (2007). Mountaintop mining and sustainable development in Appalachia, Mining Engineering: 48-55. Ghassemi, A. (2001). Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste Minimization. CRC Press. Goovaerts, P. (1997). Geo-statistics for natural resources evaluation. New York: Oxford. Hangen, E., Gerke, H.H., Schaaf, W., & Hüttl, R.F. (2005). Assessment of preferential flow processes in a forest-reclaimed lignitic mine soil by multi-cell sampling of drainage water and three tracers. Journal of Hydrology, 303: 16-37. Hons, F.M. (1978). Chemical and physical properties of lignite spoil material and their influence upon successful reclamation [Ph.D. thesis]. Texas: College Station, Texas A&M University. Macdonald, R. (2006). Geology: The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. Canada: Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina. Mercier, L.J. (2011). An Attempt to Study the Water Quality Effects of Lignite Strip Mining in Texas: Lignite Strip Mining. GIS, Water Resources. Palmer, M.A. et al. (2010). Mountaintop Removal Mining Consequences. Science, 327: 148-49. Venburg, L.C. (1983). Monitoring the effect of surface mining operations on the hydrologic regime. Ground Water Monitoring Review, 3: 86-91. Appendix Example of Woodland Example of farmland Example of Hilly Ranges Water measurement of stream discharge, as measured at each of existing USGS sites (Texas) Examples of wastelands after strip-mining Example of strip mining activity Read More