Environmental Health - Essay Example

?Environmental Health Topics INTRODUCTION This paper will attempt to present a precise literature review based on three topics including rabies, flu/avian flu and West Nile Virus. Analysis of these three diseases will be conducted on the basis of secondary sources entailing academic and peer-reviewed journals. Adequate efforts will also be rendered with the purpose of evaluating the results concluded by different medical experts and analyzing their importance and appropriateness in a much relevant context. The scope of the study will primarily be to analyze all the issues relating to these diseases and the different interpretations obtainable from the previously conducted researches in this regard. These diseases have been determined to have spread in an immense manner in the past decade which has in turn resulted in a number of occurrences of deaths of human beings. Moreover, despite the fact that the influx of a few of the diseases might have been confined to a particular region, it has over the years spread across different geographical regions. In certain instances, these diseases have taken the shape of an epidemic. In order to control rapid pace of growth, health authorities such as Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has taken a number of measures. These measures have been successful to prevent the fatal cases of deaths from these viral diseases by a considerable extent. LITERATURE REVIEW Rabies According to Willoughby et al., rabies in persons is a mortal disease characterized by harsh encephalopathy and widespread paresis (2508-2514). The primary reason for rabies to occur amid individuals is dog bites. Along with this, bite from a dog can deliver excruciating pain that may result in extensive bleeding and may cause death as well if it is not treated appropriately in time. It is a very severe disease and can lead to circumstances in which a victim may suffer from numerous health-related problems such as abnormal vomiting, headache and weakness. These types of physical disorders can lead to extreme downfall in physical along with mental conditions and can have drastic effects that may deteriorate the health in the long-term. The disease is considered to be extremely fatal and requires immediate attention for the purpose of injecting of the antibodies for fighting against the venom that gets percolated at the time of the bite. The venom that gets passed at the time of the bite is the primary reason that causes the disease and subsequently the venom is transmitted into the blood vessels of the patients bringing about maximum detrimental effects. However, with proper treatment an individual can survive the nastiest of the dog bites along with the killer disease i.e. rabies (Willoughby et al. 2508-2514). According to Knobel et al., near about 99% of all individual deaths as a result of rabies occur in the developing nations and even though useful and reasonable control measures are offered, rabies remains a deserted infection throughout most of the developing nations (360-388). A major aspect in the low rate of rabies control is the deficiency in the availability of accurate data in terms of community health impact of the disease. It is widely accepted that the amount of casualties formally reported greatly undervalues the true occurrence of the disease. Patients may not be present for medical treatments of the clinically acclaimed fatal disease in time wherein only a few cases obtain laboratory affirmation and moreover clinical cases are regularly not reported by the concerned hospital and medical authorities (Knobel et al. 360-388). According to Wells, an extension of protest against rabies—which has been over shadowed in northern Malaya since a very long time—finally occurred in Kuala Lumpur in the year 1952 (731-42). The outbreak was covered up by the necessary mass immunization of dogs, enactment of tough legislations and severe destruction of stray dogs. Similar measures were being engaged in the recent operations with an aim to eradicate the disease completely. From regular annual incidences of more than 200 confirmed cases of canine prior to 1952, only a few cases were reported. Incidentally, the incidence stood at 15 cases (all were unvaccinated dogs) in the months of January-November 1953. It was though considered that the widespread publicity movements and strict enforcement of the control actions have added measurably to the present better situation (Wells 731-42). According to Mahadevan, in Asia, cases of canine rabies persist to be a severe community health problem bringing about a large number of animals along with human deaths (1-13). According to World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 50,000 human lives are lost each year due to this viral disease. The majority of such incidents were reported from Asia and Africa, wherein 60% of the deaths seemed to occur in India alone. Human beings and canines acquire the disease by the transmission of a virus with a bite of a rabid animal especially a dog. This virus is capable of killing a human being but still the main cause of constant fatality is uncertain (Mahadevan 1-13). According to Rees, an application of an approach which is based on factors affecting raccoon rabies spread in the Great Lakes region of North America requires much attention (1-11). Raccoons are also the primary cause of rabies and Southern Ontario is at high risk of rabies because it is adjoining to common areas including New York (NY) and Quebec. This factor implies the dangers associated with Raccoons and the possibilities of widespread of rabies in the New York region and Quebec (Rees 1-11). According to Schneider and Maria Cristina, prevention and control measures have been taken to reduce the number of deaths from human rabies transmitted by vampire bats (1-13). This statement indicates the dangers that are posed by the vampire bats along with the increasing possibilities of the spread of the disease. It has been indicated that adequate measures are needed to be adopted for reducing and preventing the death rates substantially (Schneider 1-13). Avian Flu According to the observation of Nerlich and Halliday, a new 21st century virus that might lead to a fresh disease began in the year 1997 when an ailment called ‘bird ?u’ broke out in Hong Kong and killed human beings by way of infection. This was a new twist in avian ?u, the highly infectious disease. According to reports, a total of eighteen people were infected and around six people died from the outbreak of the disease in Hong Kong. The major reason was close contact with chicken (Nerlich and Halliday 1-38). According to Chawla, et al., influenza is a highly infectious disease that contaminates from one person to the other in a rapid manner (7-27). It can pass from one person to another within very short period of time. It is a virus for which human beings do not possess any immunity as well as defense and it can adversely affect them in terms of health (Chawla 7-27). As opined by Lewis, in?uenza is a negative virus that infects a wide range of species especially humans. Influenza can have a drastic effect on the overall health of the individuals and can result in high rate of mortality and death rates (139-154). Avian flu had a wide spread in all major parts of Asia since the year 2003. In this regard, Lewis further highlighted that appropriate antiviral therapies should be introduced for the purpose of ensuring sustained cure from the disease and decreasing the death rates associated with this disease. Based on the past records, various preventive measures are needed to be introduced for fighting this deadly virus in the future (Lewis 139-154). According to the observation of Fleming, infection in humans by an avian H5N1 virus was first identified in Hong Kong in the year 1997 when a total of six people died (1-12). Close proximity with household birds was a common characteristic that seemed to cause the virus to spread. However, there was no precise evidence of the spread of the virus among the people. Affects caused by a range of avian viruses (including H5 and H7 strains) have sustained and continued to appear. These affects have occurred mainly in groups, although were not solely present in the South East Asian region. However, the main reason of the virus flow was considered to be poultry. During the process of treatment in hospitals, even surgeons were affected by the avian flu (Fleming 1-12). According to Ungchusak et al., during the year 2004, a deadly avian influenza called (H5N1) virus spread from the source of chicken which tainted eight Asian nations and infected near about 44 persons, killing 30. It is a disease which is commonly known as avian flu. The disease was transmitted in the major parts of Thailand. It indicates the high amount of mortality rates that was notified during that period (Ungchusak et al. 333-340). According to Guan et al., bird-to-human transmission of avian influenza viruses poses serious threats to the overall health of the people (1-76). This statement indicates the spread of the deadly disease among humans by birds that can result in serious health issues. Control or mitigation of the virus is required in order to save the lives of human beings along with the animals (Guan 1-76). West Nile Virus According to Campbell et al., West Nile (WN) virus is a mosquito-borne disease which is easily transmitted among humans (519-529). The virus is native to Africa, Europe and Asia along with Australia and has recently resulted in a large outbreak in Romania, Russia and Israel. The disease is transmitted to birds through the mosquitoes and it can then get transferred to humans through birds. According to various reports, the disease had created havoc in New York where a large number of people got affected by it. With reference to the 1999 New York epidemic, it is determined that without sustained mosquito control operations in the urban areas, even the most advanced countries are at the risk of this disease (Campbell et al. 519-529). According to Nosal, and Pellizzari, since the influx of the disease in North America in the year 1999, West Nile virus has been reported to spread throughout the United States as well as in Canada (1443-1444). It was first detected in birds and then in mosquitoes in Ontario in the year 2001, by the end of the year 2002 viral action had been recognized in Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Saskatchewan and Manitoba and in the same year, many cases of infection were reported amongst humans in Ontario and Quebec. It was considered to be one of the fastest spreading diseases that had an adverse health effect on the human beings. Proper clinical treatment was required at that period in order to curb this severely concerning health issue (Nosal and Pellizzari 1443-1444). According to Kramer, West Nile virus is a kind of deadly virus originally mosquito-borne which was isolated in the year 1937 from the blood of a sick woman in the West Nile territory of Uganda (1302-1309). The virus has broadly circulated in Africa, Australia, Europe and Asia, and since the start of the year 1999, it has increased rapidly all throughout the western hemisphere, including the US, Mexico, Caribbean, Canada and in major parts of Central and South America. Before the year 1994, outbursts of West Nile virus were periodic and occurred primarily in the Mediterranean states that included Africa and east Europe. However, after 1994, certain major reports of occurrences have been registered with a higher rate of human casualties, particularly distressing the nervous system of humans. In North America, the virus was responsible for causing meningitis, poliomyelitis and encephalitis which resulted in high rates of morbidity and mortality that was the most distressing part. The disease is considered to be mortal along with making fast transmission (Kramer 1302-1309). According to Rossi et al., West Nile virus (WNV) is reported to be responsible for thousands of cases of mortality and morbidity in humans, birds and horses (47–65). According to historical context, epidemics were mostly confined in Africa, Europe and the Middle East, and also in major parts of Asia, which mainly caused febrile illness amongst the human beings. This ailment was treated to be a very deadly disease that also resulted in a large number of casualties especially among humans primarily causing damage to their nervous systems. However, during the 1990s, the virus expanded and spread within various geographical locations in North America. The disease was responsible for arousing concern and fear in the minds of the inhabitants as it was rapidly spreading (Rossi et al. 47–65). According to Sejvar, since the identification of the disease in North America in the year 1999, infection of humans to West Nile virus (WNV) has resulted in large extent of morbidity and mortality rates (1-8). The continuing effects of the epidemic have been noted to result in a vast enhancement in understanding the sensitive clinical features of illness amongst humans. It has also helped in defining the issues related to clinical syndromes along with facilitating to acquire clear ideas about the disease and to draw preventive measures to fight against the disease. As per several new assessments related to the disease, it is however observed that patients-even with minor cases of acute headache and fever complained about the possibility of catching WNV infection. It has developed a great sense of fear in the minds of the patients about the disease who were running the high risk of the virus infection (Sejvar 1-8). According to Gubler, West Nile virus (WNV) is a very infectious virus that is associated with the family of Flavivirida (a genus Flavivirus) (1039-1046). It is a virus that is responsible for maximum number of infections among human beings. Its symptoms include the development of rashes in the body followed by paralysis that occurs in the later stages. It is a disease that is considered to be mortal and if it is not treated in a timely basis, it can result in a large number of casualties. This virus is also known for spreading in a fast manner which primarily causes high rate of mortality. According to various reports, the virus has spread increasingly in the last 10 years and has created havoc in the minds of the people. Also, various corrective measures have been taken to fight this disease over the years (Gubler 1039-1046). CONCLUSION From the above evaluations, it has been determined that the three diseases (i.e. Rabies, Avian flu and West Nile Virus) are considered to be mortal diseases that are responsible for significant occurrences of deaths of human beings in various countries. These diseases are considered to have spread in a very rapid manner amid human beings which is also transferrable from person-to-person. According to various experts, the casualties that are caused by these diseases are required to be duly notified in time in order to address the resultant issues promptly. In addition, specific efforts have been made in order to curb the issues related with these diseases. Newer efforts for mitigating these diseases are required to be enforced in a continued manner in order to tackle these deadly viruses and save human lives. Works Cited Campbell, Grant L, AA Marfin, RS Lanciotti, and DJ Gubler. “West Nile Virus.” The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2 (2002): 519-529. Print. Chawla, Raman, “Mitigation Approaches to Combat the Flu Pandemic.” Journal of Global Infectious Diseases 1.2 (2009): 7-27. Print. Fleming, Douglas, “Influenza Pandemics and Avian Flu.” BMJ 331 (2005): 1-12. Print. Guan, Yi, “Avian In?uenza Virus (H5N1): A Threat to Human Health.” American Society for Microbiology 20. 2 (2007): 1-76. Print. Gubler, Duane J, “The Continuing Spread of West Nile Virus in the Western Hemisphere,” Emerging Infections 45 (2007): 1039-1046. Print. Knobel, Darryn L, S Cleaveland, PG Coleman, EM Fevre, MI Meltzer, ME Miranda, A Shaw, J Zinsstag and FX Meslin . “Re-evaluating the burden of rabies in Africa and Asia.” Bull World Health Organ 83. 5 (2005): 360-388. Print. Kramer, Laura D, “West Nile virus.” Lancet Neurol 6 (2007): 1302-1309. Print. Lewis, David B, “Avian Flu to human influenza.” Annual Review of Medicine 57 (2006): 139-154. Print. Mahadevan, Anita, “Role of Apoptosis in Rabies Viral Encephalitis: A Comparative Study in Mice, Canine, and Human Brain with a Review of Literature.” SAGE-Hindawi Access to Research Pathology Research International (2011): 1-13. Print. Nosal, Bob and Rosana Pellizzari, “West Nile Virus.” JAMC 168. 11 (2003): 1443-1444 Print. Nerlich, Brigitte and Christopher Halliday, “Avian Flu: The Creation of Expectations in the Interplay between Science and the Media,” Sociology of Health & Illness 29.1 (2007): 1-38. Print. Rees, Erin E, “Landscape Modeling Spatial Bottle Necks: Implications for Raccoon Rabies Disease Spread.” Biology Letters 5.3 (2009): 1-11 Print. Rossi, Shannan L, TM Ross, and JD Evans. “West Nile Virus.” US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health 30.1 (2010): 47–65. Print. Sejvar, James J, “The Long-Term Outcomes of Human West Nile Virus Infection,” Emerging Infections 44 (2007): 1-8. Print. Schneider, Maria Cristina, “Rabies Transmitted by Vampire Bats to Humans: An Emerging Zoonotic Disease in Latin America.” Public Health 25.3 (2009): 1-13. Print. Ungchusak, Kumnuan, Prasert Auewarakul, Scott F. Dowell, Rungrueng Kitphati, Wattana Auwanit, Pilaipan Puthavathana, Mongkol Uiprasertkul, Kobporn Boonnak, Chakrarat Pittayawonganon, Nancy J. Cox, Sherif R. Zaki, Pranee Thawatsupha, Malinee Chittaganpitch, Rotjana Khontong, James M. Simmerman, and Supamit Chunsutthiwat. “Probable Person-to-Person Transmission of Avian Influenza a (H5N1)”. The New England Journal of Medicine 352. 4 (2005): 333-340. Print. Willoughby, Jr., Rodney E, Kelly S. Tieves, George M. Hoffman, Nancy S. Ghanayem, Catherine M. Amlie-Lefond, Michael J. Schwabe, Michael J. Chusid and Charles E. Rupprecht. “Survival after Treatment of Rabies with Induction of Coma.” The New England Journal of Medicine (2005): 2508-2514. Print. Wells, Curtis Wright. “The Control of Rabies in Malaya through Compulsory Mass Vaccination of Dogs.” Bull World Health Organ 10. 5 (1954): 731-42. Print. Read More