Psychology of Language Learning - Assignment Example

?Cognitive and Socio-cultural Theories of Language Learning Table of Contents Language Acquisition………………………………………………………….2 Socio-cultural Theory of Language Learning………………………………..4 Cognitive Theory of Language Learning……………………………………..6 Collaboration of Socio-cultural and Cognitive Theories…………………….8 Conclusion..................................................................................................9 References…………………………………………………………………..…10 Cognitive and Socio-cultural Theories of Language Learning Language acquisition and development has been a point of keen interest of educators, psychologists and researchers that numerous studies have been done to unveil more knowledge about it .There have been many theories conceptualized as to how language is acquired by human beings. Language Acquisition A great deal of a child’s acquisition of linguistic structure occurs during the first five years of life. This is the period when he is most active in discerning a set of underlying organizational principles of language from the expression that surrounds him. It is amazing how at a very young age, he is capable of abstracting meaning from direct experience with other language users depending on his own context. Beaty (2009) explains that even at an infant stage, the baby’s early nonverbal communication helps in preparing her for the spoken and written language to follow and at 6 months, she has become a language specialist, based on the sounds she hears most frequently. At 20 months, she may possess a sizable vocabulary if she hears adults around her talk to one another and to her all the time. Of course good hearing and sensitive listening are paramount to language development. According to Lightbrown & Spada (1999), like the first language, “learner’s age is one of the characteristics which determine the way in which an individual approaches second language learning” (p. 68). Lindfors (1987) notes that the child’s language environment includes a set of specific sentences, however, it is not this set of sentences that he acquires, but deduces from these an underlying set of organizational principles and sound-meaning relationships. To illustrate, children as young as two do not talk by simply using the specific sentences they hear, but rather, they construct sentences according to their own early version of organized principles underlying the specific sentences they have heard. Perhaps due also to limited language and motor skills, the child’s early linguistic system is different from the adult’s and results in telegraphic and grammatically erratic sentences like “He no want to sit me.”, “I not like it”, and “He gived it to me.” Over time, his language system will be revised in many different situations, and his sentences will become more adult-like. For his own purpose, he builds his own rule-governed constructions as he has deduced from his environment and from interactions with others (Lindfors, 1987). Language has four elements, and these elements have related skills necessary to develop a proficiency in language. According to Larsen-Freeman (1986), the natural order that children follow when learning their native language in terms of skill acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Crucial to the development of teaching approaches is an understanding of such processes involved in language use. Socio-cultural Theory of Language Learning According to Lev Vygotsky (1962), social interaction stimulated by speech is essential for language development. He also mentions that a supportive interactive environment can help the child to reach a higher level of knowledge and performance compared to what might be reached through his or her ability to improve independently (Lightbown and Spada, 2006). To this socio-cultural perspective, Lightbrown & Spada (2006) contend that people obtain control and reorganize their thinking processes during mediation as what they learn is internalized during social interactions. This follows Vygotsky’s theory that people learn through socialization because of interaction and collaboration with other speakers. Vygotsky (1962, as mentioned in Clay, 1998) emphasizes the value of children’s talk and their growing ability to articulate their understanding of their world orally and in writing. Taking part in negotiating meanings is part of the educational process, and Vygotsky believes that just being with others helps children learn. Benson McMullen (1998) agrees that children’s collaboration with their peers in problem-solving sessions encourages listening to each other’s ideas and in turn, express their own thoughts clearly. The varied ideas on dealing with problems evolve in group discussions making children understand that there may be more than one solution to a problem. It also prompts children to negotiate with others which solution to try. Adults play a huge role in the language development of children, as they need someone who uses simple language in correct form and is flexible enough adjust his language to suit the child’s (Clay, 1988). Maltz and Borker (1982) proposed the Sociolinguistic Subculture Approach. They explain that boys and girls grow up in essentially different talk subcultures resulting from the differing expectations parents and peers direct toward them about acceptable ways to talk. As early as two years of age, children classify themselves and other people as belonging to one of two genders. By age three, girls develop skills at talking earlier than boys and these talking skills are utilized to explore relationships with others. They are more likely than boys to deploy language strategies that demonstrate attentiveness, responsiveness, and support (Leaper, 1991). They develop intimate relationships by selecting a “best friend” and use language to find common ground with that friend. Boys at the same age are not as verbal. They use more strategies that demand attention, give orders, and establish dominance (Leaper, 1991). They engage in group activities with other boys and test out their ‘high’ and ‘low’ status roles: “I’m the leader”, “you follow me”, etc. They establish positions among the group and they are apparently louder, more physical and less verbal than girls (Rasquinha & Mouly, 2005). Socio-cultural interactive learning in a multicultural environment is becoming more pronounced as the world becomes more globalized. Hence, culturally-relevant teaching must be learned by teachers especially in second language learning.. Such teaching takes into consideration the cultural background of the students at all times. It also keeps in mind cultural aspects in all interactions with students on both personal and educational levels. (Edwards & Kuhlman, 2007). Students’ cultures, languages and experiences need to be acknowledged, valued and used as important sources of their education because they deserve the best that society can give them. This involves teachers learning about students’ backgrounds and personal experiences to use as tools to make connections with these students. Some strategies that teachers can employ are the inclusion of the various histories, contributions, perspectives and concerns relevant to the diverse backgrounds of students (The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements, n.d.). Incorporating these in the curriculum makes learning meaningful to these students. Multicultural education using literature from various cultures engages such children in reading and writing and makes them eager to learn the social or cultural contributions made by various groups of people. Cognitive Theory of Language Learning Another theory in learning is Ausubel’s Cognitive Learning theory wherein meaningful processes of associating new information to already known concepts are known to bring about learning. Ausubel contrasts rote learning from meaningful learning in that rote learning is the acquisition of material as “discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion, not permitting the establishment of meaningful relationships” (Ausubel, 1968, as qtd in Brown, 1987, p. 65). On the other hand, meaningful learning is a process that relates and establishes new information learned to relevant past knowledge and experiences. “Ausubel’s theory of learning has important implications for second language learning and teaching. Too much rote activity, at the expense of meaningful communication in language classes, could stifle the learning process.” (Brown, 1987, p.69). The Cognitive theory of language learning is actively seen in content-based instruction. Stroller (2004) defines Content-based Instruction (CBI) as a range of approaches in second language learning that fosters the integration of language and content. The link between the two is very strong, as language becomes a medium to learn content while content is the resource for learning the language. That is why in some ESL classes, the use of one’s home language is necessary when trying to understand content in the foreign language learned. Herrero (2005) agrees that in learning a new language, shifting emphasis from the instruction of learning the language to learning its content is an effective and quick way to learn the language. Several reasons may be argued in the incorporation of content in learning a second language. Firstly, content is rich in opportunities to develop knowledge that can be interesting and relevant in different subject areas. Secondly, students have the opportunity to apply new skills learned in terms of language functions as they practice the new language in understanding, discussing and reading and writing about the lessons. Still another reason is that students become more motivated when content is included in the lesson rather than merely learning the language. Finally, teachers are able to use various teaching and learning strategies in teaching the second language if content is incorporated in the lessons. CBI meets goals for both learning language and content and does not sacrifice linguistic skills for focusing on content knowledge (Stoller, 2004). Collaboration of Socio-cultural and Cognitive Theories Swain (2000) came up with the output hypothesis which claims that language output of speaking and writing is weaker than the receiving input of reading and listening. Such a theory has been influenced by cognitive theory, but it is most likely to be motivated by sociocultural theory as well. This demonstrates how both theories of language learning can work together in the process of learning language. Swain and Lapkin (2000) studied how second language learners co-construct what they learn while doing the production tasks of speaking and writing. This would mean that while producing language, they simultaneously engage in form and meaning. Swain (2000) calls it ‘collaborative dialogue’ where ‘language use - language learning can co-occur. It is language use mediating language learning. It is cognitive activity and it is social activity’ (p. 97). So the sociocultural perspective views that in second language learning, cognitive processes begin externally through socially mediation and eventually become internalized. On the other hand, other interactionist models believe that modified input and interaction bring with them internal cognitive processes. Having just one theory over the other would not be as effective has having both theories work together. For instance, if Cognitive theory is solely used, it means that the learner would have to make sense of the events that transpire before him in order to learn on his own with the aid of resources such as a film or a book. An example is learning a new language using a programmed audiotape. In this method, the individual simply listens to the recording without any opportunity to respond and get feedback. There is a good chance that he will derive meaning from the new words he is learning because of some relevant examples. However, it would be better if he interacts with another person in learning the language because he not only gets feedback but he would get to practice speaking it and giving feedback himself. Thus, the importance of the socio-cultural approach in language learning is heightened. On the other hand, if two people are trying to learn a new language together (Socio-cultural approach) but they do not understand the meaning of some new words (Cognitive approach) because there may not be enough examples or there is no available teacher to guide them accordingly, then the learning would only be at the interaction level without understanding of meaning. Conclusion Being able to communicate well entails being able to interact with the person one is communicating with as well as finding meaning to new information gained from the conversation in order to progress to more and deeper topics. In view of this, the Cognitive and Socio-cultural theories of language learning should go hand-in-hand. References Ausubel, David. A. (1968) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston 1968. Beaty, J.J. (2009), 50 Early childhood literacy strategies, Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp. 54-55. Benson McMullen, M. (1998) 'Thinking before doing: A giant toddler step on the road to literacy', Young Children, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 65-70 Brown, H. Douglas., Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, 2nd Ed. NJ: Prentice Hall Regents 1987 Clay, M. (1998) By Different Paths to Common Outcomes, Stenhouse Publishers, Maine. Edwards, S. & Kuhlman, W. (2007) Culturally Responsive Teaching: Do We Walk Our Talk?, Multicultural Education, Summer 2007 Herrero, A. H. (2005), Content-Based Instruction in an English Oral Communication Course at the University of Costa Rica, Actual Investigations in Education, Vol.5, No. 4, Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986) Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press, Inc. Leaper, C. (1991) “Influence and Involvement in Children's Discourse: Age, Gender, and Partner Effects”, Child Development, 1991, 62, 797-811 Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (2006) How Languages Are Learned. New York: Oxford University Press. 2006. Lindfors, J.W.(1987) Children’s Language and Learning, 2nd Ed. Prentice Hall, Inc. Maltz, Daniel N, and Ruth A. Borker. (1982) "A Cultural Approach to Male- Female Miscommunication."Pp. 196-216 in Language and Social Identity, edited by J. J. Gumperz. Cambridge,England: Cambridge University. Rasquinha, D. & Mouly, S. (2005) “When Women Talk: What Do Leaders Sound Like?”, Organisational Culture, June 2005. Stoller, E. (2004) Promoting the acquisition of knowledge in a content based course, In J. Crandall & D. Kaufman (Eds.), Content-based instruction in higher education settings (pp. 109-123). Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (2000), Task-based second language learning: the uses of the first language. Language Teaching Research 4,3 pp. 251–274. The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements. (n.d.). “Cultural and linguistic differences: What teachers should know”. Retrieved on 18 March, 2011 from http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/CLDE/chalcycle.htm Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language (E. Hanfmann and G. Vaker, Eds & Trans.) Cambridge, M.A.: MIT Press Read More