The Demographics of Indonesia - Research Paper Example

?#527039 Indonesia: Identity, History, Women, Politics and Religion.       Indonesia gets its from its geographic location, sitting on the fencebetween India and Southeastern Asia, an archipelago consisting of 17, 508 islands, lying in the middle of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Indonesia has a land area of 1,904,569 square kilometers. A country exploding with energy, on Indonesia’s landmass rests more than 76 volcanoes, the majority of them active. Rich natural resources place Indonesia in an enviable position with petroleum, coal, gold, silver and natural gas as a few of the revenue-earning exports. Indonesia carves its identity as a nation through hundreds of years first as a strategic trade point for Indian and Arab traders, then as a land annexed in conquest with European colonization. Social issues divide the population at many points, for example, the place of women in the labor market, feminized labor, women's rights and prostitution, suffrage, dress, religious observance and politics.       The demographics of Indonesia inform on the population's race, religion, languages, and ages. Indonesia is a country of diverse ethnicities. Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese and Minangkabau represent some examples of these races. Catholicism, Protestantism, Hinduism are some recognized religions in Indonesia. The official languages of Indonesia are Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese. From the national census in 2009, Indonesia reported a population totaling 240.3 million. The life expectancy for men is 67 years and the life expectancy for women is 72 years (U.S. Department of State).       Although not an Islamic state, more than 85 percent of Indonesia profess the Muslim faith. Islam has established deep roots in Indonesia since the 5th century in which Indian traders transferred their beliefs to the Indonesian Natives. The mixture of traditional religion with Islam produced a syncretistic version of Islam such that Indonesian Muslims retain certain doctrines of animism. Although there were a few attempts to implement shariah law within the national constitution of Indonesia, Indonesia remains a democratic, liberal and secular state where adherents of different religions can freely practice religion according to their consciences. However, a few guerrilla extremist Islamic groups exist in Indonesia that continue to fight for a stricter Islamist state, so that constitutional laws would be subject to shariah law.       The political history of Indonesia is wide and rife with conflict, conquest and colonialism. Between the 7th and 14th century A.D., the Indonesian island of Sumatra enjoyed the flourishing of a Buddhist-centered empire called Srivijaya. This kingdom spread far and wide to encompass a vast region including West Java and the Malay Peninsula. In the thirteenth century, the Mataram dynasty began as a small kingdom in central Java. The chronicles of Mataram indicate it was a pro-Islamic state which encouraged preservation of traditional animism.  The fourteenth century marked the introduction of another Hindu-based empire named Majapahit. Majapahit lasted about two centuries until the 1600s when the Dutch began a campaign of colonization. The broken kingdom and divided islands facilitated conquest. Soekarno/Sukarno ne Kusno Sosrodihardjo is the mastermind behind Pancasila. He emerged as Indonesia's first president after the declaration of independence and reigned as President until 1967. The end of WWII marked the end of colonialism for Indonesia since Japan occupied and gained control of government for three years between 1942-1945. After Sukarno renounced power, one of Sukarno's military generals, Suharto, rose to command presidential authority. Suharto is noted to have played a great role in the extensive bloodshed of 150,000-500,000 alleged communists in 1966. Contrary to his predecessor, Suharto's tenure ushered in a "New Order." He put in place new policies to further develop the infrastructure of Indonesia.  After successive re-election terms, President Suharto governed the Republic of Indonesia for about 30 years.       The post-Suharto period of Indonesia's history does not possess the stability of preceding regimes, but it has liberalized and further democratized Indonesian policies and practices. In 1999, Indonesia held for the first time, free and fair elections, since its predecessors were autocratic authoritarians. Several reforms opened the country to celebrate a fuller democracy with greater freedom of speech. Jusuf Habibie acted as President for one year, 1999-2000. His successor, President Abdurrahman Wahid lasted only one year, 2000-2001. However, Indonesia elected its first female president, Diah Permata Megawati who governed from 2001-2004. Megawati's election shows the freedom of women to exert influence in the political field. As at 2004, President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono stood as the official leader over Indonesian affairs and he was again re-elected Indonesian president in 2009.       Sex tourism, romance entrepreneurship and prostitution are one and the same industry in which many women in Indonesia are employed. Although, prostitution is not officially legitimized, the government of Indonesia has decriminalized it so that certain areas are recognized 'red light' districts, for example Kramat Tunggak and prostitutes are registered. Sometimes, the legal operating periods vary as well as the location; however, prostitution centers encourage female exploitation - in both women and young girls. A survey reported that 10% of functioning Indonesian prostitutes began while in childhood or adolescence. Most women get entangled in prostitution because of deep poverty, drug dependency or economic straits. Sex workers can expect to earn more than six times the sum of money paid to regular, unskilled or low-skilled jobs (Edlund 189). As a result of the tacit sanction of prostitution, the contagiousness of HIV/AIDS grew killing and endangering millions of Indonesians. The U.N. sets the low estimate of HIV victims at 200,000 and the high estimate at 460,000. According to statistics, 53% of sex workers use condoms. This figure demonstrates that Indonesian culture is not typically open to condomizing (Riono 78). Great danger lies in this neglect to take advantage of sexual protection in view of the burgeoning sex trade. Sex tourism also appears in the form of contract-wives, in which women work as live-in mistresses to foreign visitors, but only for a stated time period. Indonesia has a history endorsing prostitution since the times of Dutch colonialism where Dutchmen would possess 'nyais' or mistresses for a contracted interval. It was considered a privilege to mother a foreigner's child because of the mother's hope that the father assumed parental responsibility. Even the house servant job poses a risk since maidservants, cooks, launderers are mostly vulnerable women who would attract unwanted advances from their employers. House service, at times, is the first step into the downward spiral to prostitution, since sexual exploitation converts to paid sexual favors.       The wave of industrialization makes its imprint in Indonesian society. Industrialized labor accounts for 18% of the available jobs in 2008 according to released reports. Another popular occupation for Indonesian women is the manufacturing industry. In poor developing countries such as Indonesia, the demand for mass production, cheap labor, unskilled workers, and little accountability catches the attention of mega multinational companies, particularly the garment and textile. In Indonesia, one observes the feminization of the work force which describes the phenomenon of the growing representation and contribution of women in labor and production (Caraway 260). Due to the liberal policies adopted by the Indonesian government and despite the protest of some Islamist factions, women receive inclusion in labor markets and labor unions. The impact of feminization is evidenced in the percentages of women employed in Indonesia. The United Nations reveals 49.4% of Indonesian women hold jobs in 2008. Despite the growing quantities of women in the work force, men still dominate with 85% of men employed and actively engaged in labor. The unemployment rate stands at 8.4% as at 2008.       In Indonesia the head covering is not obligatory by law but some women choose to wear headscarves referred as djilbab. In some states head covering is mandatory by law urged by several Islamist sects. Because of Indonesia is a secular state, Islamic dress or jilbab is not codified in Indonesian law, however the pressure to integrate shariah law by certain religious groups caused particular provinces to enforce veiling and Muslim clothing. In the urban environment, women generally adapt to contemporary Western style of dress. Both Muslims and non-Muslims argue that Muslim and Arab wear should not be confused. Sharp difference lies on the extent of the population's subjection to clothing control (Brenner 674).       Indonesia boasts high literacy levels, nevertheless, a large cross section of the population is unable to afford higher education because of insufficient and substandard education facilities. Primary level education in Indonesia is mandatory, therefore between 2005-2009, the percentages of primary school aged boys in school numbered 97%, while 94% of primary school girls obtained this same level of education. However a great divide is present in secondary school enrollment, with 69% of boys and 68% of girls officially registered to attend high school classes. Also, to attend junior secondary and tertiary institutions, poor families cannot afford to pay for tuition, fees and books. About 70% of Indonesian drop-outs list deficient finances among the reasons for discontinued schooling. A trend noticed is that Muslims are more prone to leave school early. Girls also are more likely to drop out of school because of pregnancy, marriage, or employment opportunity for young women coming from low-income households. However, the academic performance of Indonesian girls exceeds that of boys (Suryadarma 28, 29). Indonesia has an underdeveloped higher education sector which retards attainment of higher education for the masses.        In 1937, the Indonesian government legitimized a passive suffrage so that women had the right to be elected to local and national councils. As a result from the passage of this law in 1938, four women were voted in municipal councils. Feminism and nationalism joined hands in lobbying for Indonesian women to obtain full adult suffrage. One must note that nationalist sentiments ran high since Indonesia was occupied by the Japanese and still considered a colony of the Netherlands. In 1941, just before the outbreak of WWII, the government bestowed on women full active suffrage so that women can not only be nominated and elected, but also cast a legitimate vote. Before 1941, only European women had the privilege of full adult suffrage in Indonesia.  However eligibility is defined by the level of education of the woman and her age (at least 21 years). The opponents to women's suffrage espoused conservative and religious views on women, holding that the women's place was not in the political or public sphere. While foreign nationals and groups regarded the Indonesian women as unprepared and ill-equipped to make such weighty decisions on behalf of the citizenry. 1955 marked the year in which Indonesian women are allowed the opportunity to vote at national elections. However with the advent of the Suharto's "New Order", only elite women could participate in politics. In 1978, under U.N. directives, Indonesia permitted female parliamentarians to Cabinet. It was not until 1999, after Suharto's regime collapse that full and free elections for all, inclusive of women are given (Blackburn 94-98). In 2009, the government seats won by women parliamentarians number 18.2%.       Civil wars and guerrilla groups are not foreign to Indonesia. The worst carnage to ever occur in Indonesia broke out, when 150,000 to 500,000 civilians were executed because of suspected links to the Communist party. Revolutionary Islamic groups continually rebel against the government to administer ultraconservative policies. Religious conflict is familiar unfortunately to Indonesians since Muslim and Christian relations are fragile and volatile. Islamists declare war on Christian converts and attempt to monopolize religious rights (McElhatton 88). A long outstanding antagonism between the Indonesian government and Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM) movement or the Aceh Sumatra National Liberation Front/Free Aceh persisted from 1990 to 2002. This war of attrition wiped away the lives of thousands of Indonesians from Aceh who seek autonomy from the Indonesian government.       Polygamy and early marriage age are two customs inherent in Indonesia's predominantly Muslim culture. The prophet Mohammed had several wives, the youngest of which was at one point, 9 years old. In older cultures, adults would be the judges of nubility, dependent primarily on physical sexual maturity. During colonial times in Indonesia, the consummation of marriage would happen years ahead after the 'child-marriage' or betrothal. When the child comes into adolescence or the age of majority (sixteen or eighteen), parties would then contract the marriage. In 1937, the Dutch government attempted to restrain  the practice of child marriages in Indonesia by setting up a provisional law instituting monogamy and marriageable age limits for Muslims, however, Indonesian nationalists and Muslims themselves resisted. After colonialism ended, feminist groups such as the Indonesian Women's Congress (KOWANI) entered the controversy on child marriage which was considered abominable, heathen and pedophile. In 1947, the Indonesian government decreed the documentation of all marriages through the state. This measure ensured the detection of illegal unions but it was not vigilantly enforced. In 1974, in the "New Order" government, Indonesia stipulates that the legal age of consent for women is sixteen and the legal age of consent for men is nineteen (Bowden 16-18). The new 1974 legislation also imposes a still optional monogamous marriage. In Indonesia, it is permissible for a Muslim man to marry at most, four women. The government indirectly controls polygamy through the establishment of the family court and the religious court. Reasons for taking on more wives must be based on the health of the wives, the consent of the former wives, the household performance of wives, and the financial stability of the husband to supply the needs of his expanding family. Some Muslims view the imposition of these values as government's westernizing or Christianizing Indonesian society.       In sum, Indonesia represents a fully Muslim state, yet not Islamized so much to the point of compelling dissidents to conform to its religious observances. Indonesia models the growth of a developing nation which continues to grapple with religious extremism, infighting, political conflict, gendered roles and restrictions and poverty which induces millions to keep low-paying jobs. The history of Indonesia impacts its present day condition as the Dutch conquerors set in motion certain traditions and laws which dictate the political, social and religious norms and direction of the country.   Works Cited: Adam, Asvi Warman. "The History of Violence and the State in Indonesia" Centre on  Research on Inequality Human Security and Ethnicity (CRISE) No. 54, 2008.        . Accessed 27 April 2011. Basuki, Endang. Ivan Wolffers. "Reasons For Not Using Condoms Among Female Sex  Workers in Indonesia" AIDS Education and Prevention Journal. Vol. 14, No. 2        April 2002. Blackburn, Susan. Women and the State in Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press, U.K., 2004. Bowden, Jeremiah. Marriageable Age in Islam: A Study on Marriageable Age Laws and Reforms in Islamic Law. Claremont Graduate University, 2010. Caraway, Teri L. Assembling Women: The Feminization of Global Manufacturing. Cornell University Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Volume 62, No. 2, 2009.        . Accessed 27 April   2011. Edlund, Lena. Evelyn Korn. "A Theory of Prostitution" Journal of Political Economy. Vol.  110, No. 1, University of Chicago Press, 2002. La Botz, Dan. Made in Indonesia: Indonesian Workers since Suharto, South End Press, Massachusetts, 2001. McElhatton, Emmet. Guerrilla Warfare and the Indonesian Strategic Psyche: Small Wars Katoppo, Marianne. "The Church and Prostitution in Asia," from the book Feminist Theology  from the Third World by Ursula King.      . Accessed  27 April 2011. Kim, Jungho. Henriette Englelhardt. "Does Fertility Decrease the Welfare of Households? An Analysis of Poverty Dynamics and Fertility in Indonesia" Vienna Institute of Demography nd Arnstein Aaassve, University of Essex, U.K., 2006        . Accessed 27  April 2011. Riono, P. Jazant, S. "The Current Situation of the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Indonesia". AIDS Education and Prevention Journal, Vol. 16, No. 3, Guilford Press, USA, 2004. 78-90. Suryadarma, Daniel. Asep Suryahadi, Sudarno Sumarto. Causes of Low Secondary  Enrollment in Indonesia. SMERU Research Institute, Aug. 2006.        . U.S. Department of State Diplomacy in Action: Background Note Indonesia        . Accessed 27 April 2011. Vickers, Adrian. A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press, U.K., 2005. . Accessed 27 April  2011. Wanandi, Jusuf. "Islam in Indonesia: Its History, Development and Future Challenges." Asia- Pacific Review, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2002, 104-112.       Read More