The City-States in Greece - Research Paper Example

?Greek s The s (polis) developed in Greece during the 8 century BC and became the fundamental of Greek polity. A state consisted of a town or village and its surroundings. The town was the central point of the city state and citizens assembled there for political, religious and social activities. In some city states, this meeting point was a hill and served as a place of refuge during attack. Later monuments were erected and became religious centres. There was an agora, an open space below this acropolis that served as a place to meet and as a market (Spielvogel). The size of the city states varied. While some consisted of few square miles, there are some consisting of over 100 square miles. The large city states formed through the consolidation of several cities. For example, the territory of Attica which earlier had 12 city-states became a single city state of Athens. By fifth century BC, it had a population of 250000. But most city states had population of few thousands only. The word politics is derived from the Greek word Polis. For the Greeks, the polis was not only a political institution, but it was a community of persons in which all political, economic, social, cultural and religious activities are focused (Spielvogel). The people in the city state consisted of citizens with political rights, citizens without political rights and non citizens. In the city state, women and children had no political rights. Slaves were not considered as citizens. All citizens of the polis had rights and responsibilities. According to Aristotle, the father of Political Science, every citizen must consider himself as belonging to the state. He emphasised on the unity of the people and believed that the state should take the initiative to direct the life of the community. This patriotism however brought distrust among the various city states that ultimate resulted in its ruin. In fact, Greece was not a politically united country. There was no central government in ancient Greece. It mainly denotes the geographical location only (Ancient Greek City-States ). War was an integral part of Greek way of life. According to the great Greek philosopher Plato, war exists by nature between every Greek city state. The tradition of warfare developed by Greeks became part of western civilisation. They possessed excellent weapons and made use of technological advancements. A large number of citizens were solders. They were interested in discipline and receiving training. This gave the Greek army an edge over the opponents’ larger armies. They had a willingness to engage the enemy directly and thus the battle ends quickly with fewer casualties. They also demonstrated the effectiveness of heavy infantry. Colonisation Another major development during 750 BC and 550 BC was the expansion of Greece and growth of trade. Over population, hunger, poverty, growth of trade etc. forced many Greeks to leave their homeland and settle in distant parts. Most of them settled inn fertile agricultural lad taken from native population. Each colony was established as a polis and was independent of the mother polis (metropolis). The Greek settlements in Western part of Mediterranean included cities of Tarentum (Taranto) and Neapolis (Naples). Many Greek communities established in Italy who were later called Magna Graecia by the Romans. Syracuse, another city found by the Corinth was important. Greeks also established in southern France, Northern Africa and Western Egypt. The Greeks also established on the banks of black sea, most important being Byzantium. By establishing a trading post in Egypt, Greeks also got access to the culture and goods from the East. Results of colonisation Greek settlements in different places resulted in spreading Greek culture throughout Mediterranean region. The Romans had first contacts with Greece through settlements in south Italy. It also helped in developing a Greek identity. The Greek communities before the 8 century had isolated life. When they went abroad and confronted people with different culture, they became conscious about Greek identity and cultural similarities. Trade increased and industry also developed. They sent pottery, wine and olive oil to these places and received grains and metals from the west and fish, timber, wheat, metals and slaves from the Black Sea region (Spielvogel). As trade and industry flourished, a new group of rich persons emerged in many city states. They demanded many privileges, but did not get from the ruling aristocrats. This led to a political crisis. Tyranny Monarchy disappeared with the establishment of Polis as the important institution in the eighth century BC. Some monarchs remained as ceremonial figures with no real power. Political power passed into the hands of local aristocracies. The aspirations of the new industrial and business class and the divisions between rich and poor led to the rise of tyrants in the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The Greek tyrants were not very oppressive as one might think. They were rulers who captured power using force. They are not subject to law and had the support of new rich who made money through business and trade. This new rich were opposed to aristocratic oligarchies. The tyrants achieved power by overthrowing rulers and retained it through mercenary soldiers. They built temples, markets and glorified the city. The tyrants also protected the interests of traders and businessmen by founding new colonies, establishing new system of weights and measures and introducing coins. The city developed under them. They also promoted culture by patronising art. In Corinth, oligarchy was overthrown by Cypselus, a member of the family. People liked him and he ruled without a bodyguard. Corinth prospered during his rule and founded many colonies. It exported large quantities of pottery and other items. His son succeeded him. But he ruled with much cruelty and his son who succeeded him was killed. Soon, a new oligarchy was established there. By sixth century BC, tyranny disappeared in many city states of Greece. The children and grandchildren of these tyrants were corrupt and cruel. So, tyranny was no more considered as a desired political institution. Although tyranny did not last long, it played important role Greek history. It destroyed narrow oligarchic aristocracies. With the end of tyranny, more people began to participate in the affairs of the community. In some communities, these led to the development of democracy. In other city states, some kind of oligarchy continued. The Greek city states experimented with variety of political institutions. The most powerful Greek city states were Sparta and Athens. A detailed study of these two city states would give a glimpse of the variety of governmental forms practised in Greek city- states. Sparta Athens and Sparta developed different political systems. Spartans liked stability and conformity and emphasised order. Athenians stressed freedom and permitted individual differences. Although they had a common heritage, their differences grew very serious that they engaged in a life and death struggle. Sparta is located in Laconia region of south-eastern Peloponnesus. Spartans lived in four villages that were unified to form a single polis. A fifth village also joined it soon. With unification, Sparta became stronger and conquered neighbouring Laconians. Many Laconians became free inhabitants who had to pay taxes and had to do military service. They were not citizens. Other Laconians were made helots who had to work on farms and as servants of Spartans. When the population of Sparta increased, the land in Laconia was not sufficient. So, by 730 BC, Spartans began conquest of neighbouring Messenia. It had fertile land for growing grain. The Messenian’s were made helots. They were forced to work for Spartans. To maintain control over lacinian and Messenian helots, Sparta consciously created a military state. Spartans were subjected to strict laws. Every child was examined by state officials after birth to decide whether it was fit to live. Misfit children were killed. At the age of seven, boys were separated from their mothers and brought under the control of the state. Their life was in barracks and was subjected to harsh discipline. This made them tough. Education stressed on military training and obedience to authority. At the age of 20, males were enrolled for regular military service. They were allowed to marry, but had to live in barracks and had to eat in public dining halls with fellow soldiers. The food consisted of a piece of pork boiled in blood, vinegar and salt. At the age of 30, Spartans are considered as mature and were allowed to vote and live in homes. They continue in the army until the age of 60. Spartan female had greater freedom and efficiency because their husbands were in the barracks until the age of thirty. They do exercise to remain fit and to raise healthy children. The Spartan women expected bravery from the husbands. Athens Athenians thought themselves as the shining star among the Greek city states (Ancient Greek City-States ) . Before the dark ages Athens was a small village, home to a tribe of Ionian people (Ancient Greek City-States ). After the Greek dark ages, Athens grew rapidly until Athens was one of the two most powerful city-states in the ancient Greek world (Ancient Greek City-States ). Athens is located near Piraeus on the Saronic Gulf in eastern Greece. The Greeks believed that each city state had a god or goddess.For Athens, their patron was Athena, goddess of wisdom.So, they put lot of emphasis on education. In Athens, citizens met every week to discuss problems. They worked to find solutions.  The men of Athens experimented with different forms of government. For about 100 years, it was a direct democracy. Athens began to exert influence in the 6 century BC. It was destroyed by Xerxes in 480 BC, but rebuilding began immediately. Athens was destroyed by Xerxes in 480 BC. But rebuilding began immediately. (CD) Athens's “Golden Age” saw the works of the philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle; the dramatists Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Euripides; the historians Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon; and the sculptors Praxiteles and Phidias. The Peloponnesian Wars with Sparta ended in Athens's defeat in 404, but it quickly recovered its independence and prosperity (CD). After 338 BC Athens came under Macedonia's hegemony, which was lifted with the aid of Rome in 197 BC in a battle at Cynoscephalae. It became subject to Rome in 146 BC (CD). The Athenians were committed to arts and science. Pericles was elected to power in 461 BC. He adopted essential democratic reforms. He asserted Athenian control over the Delian League and used the league's treasury to rebuild the Acropolis, which had been sacked by the Persians (CD). His influential consort Aspasia bore him a son, who was legitimated when his legitimate sons died (CD). In 447–446 Athens lost Megara, giving Sparta direct access to Attica (CD). Though Athens and Sparta agreed on a Thirty Years' Peace (446–445), Pericles had the Long Walls from Athens to the port at Piraeus strengthened for protection (CD). When war broke out in 431, he relied on the navy to keep the city supplied (CD). Attica's population was brought inside the Long Walls, leaving the countryside open to Spartan pillaging. When plague broke out, killing one-fourth of the population, he was deposed and fined (CD). He was re-elected, but he too died of the plague. His great funeral oration remains one of the greatest defences of democracy, and his era is remembered as the Golden Age of Athens (CD). Greek Culture After the Dark Age, Greek art and culture flourished. Pottery and sculpture were influenced by the East. Greek literature of the seventh century was the best. The Greek civilization is called classical civilisation. The period from 500 BC to the conquest of Greece by Macedonian king Philip II in 338 BC was a period of achievement for Greece. Democracy flourished in Athens under the leadership of Pericles. The most important contributions of Greece occurred during this period. The age began with confrontation between Greek states and Persian Empire. As the Greek empire expanded it came into contact with Persian Empire. The Greeks saw the struggle with Persians as the struggle between freedom and slavery. For the Greeks, a person was citizen of the state, not a subject. First Persian attack The Persians captured Eretria and transferred their army to the plain of marathon, 26 miles from Athens. The Athenians confronted Persians. The armies of two sides were different. The Persians were light armed, flexible and more mobile and relied on missiles. The Greeks were armed with heavy shields and relied on thrusts at close range. The Greeks charged across the plain of Marathon and crushed the Persian forces. Meanwhile, Athens had a new leader who advocated a new military policy. He stressed on the development of a navy. By 480 BC, Athens developed a navy of 200 vessels. The death of Darius prevented the Persians from attacking the Athens again. Even though Xerxes, the new Persian king was inclined in favour of attacking, the Greeks prepared a defensive league under the leadership of Sparta. The Persians under Xerxes attempted an invasion in 480 BC. They had massive military force with 150000 troops. They had 700 naval ships also. They crossed Hellespont by forming a bridge of ships and moved through Thrace and Macedonia to reach Greece. The Greeks however knew that the Persian army depended on ships for supply. So the Greeks were prepared to block them. But a traitor leaked the plans of Greece. So Spartans had to fight till the last man. Threatened by Persian forces, Athenians decided to abandon Athens. The population was evacuated to Attica. However, the Greek fleet remained in the straits of Salamis. Athenian Democracy Thucydides has reconstructed the views of Pericles about Athenian democracy in the following words. “Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighbouring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. Its administration favours the many instead of the few; this is why it is called a democracy. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if no social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life. There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance over each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our neighbour for doing what he likes, or even to indulge in those injurious looks which cannot fail to be offensive, although they inflict no positive penalty. But all this ease in our private relations does not make us lawless as citizens. Against this fear is our chief safeguard, teaching us to obey the magistrates and the laws, particularly such as regard the protection of the injured, whether they are actually on the statute book, or belong to that code which, although unwritten, yet cannot be broken without acknowledged disgrace. (Gill) " Greek Philosophy Greek philosophy attempted to explain universe on the basis of unifying principles. Pythagoras taught that the essence of life can be found in music and numbers. Many Greeks were not interested in the speculation about the nature of the universe. The Sophists rejected such speculation. They were wandering scholars and provided services as professional teachers the young men of Greece. In classical Greece, Athens became an intellectual centre. Socrates Socrates was a famous teacher in Athens. He wanted his students to question things. "Is our government good? If gods exist, where do they live? (Ancient Greek City-States ).“This angered some of the wealthy nobles in ancient Athens and they accused Socrates of mocking the gods (Ancient Greek City-States ). They demanded a trial because anyone who mocked the gods would be killed. It was a serious charge.  Anyone could demand a trial in Athens. Whichever side lost the trial paid for the whole trial (Ancient Greek City-States ). Socrates was killed by giving him poison.   Decline of Greek City States There was continuous warfare among the Greeks. The leading roles shifted among Athens, Sparta and Thebes, a new Greek power. Athens was defeated in 404 BC and Spartans took control over Greece. Oligarchies headed by local ten man boards in cooperation with Spartan garrisons controlled the states liberated from Athenian imperialism (Spielvogel). But, this was not effective. The ruling faction was nicknamed as Thirty Tyrants. They executed 1500 democratic opponents. This led to a reaction and finally Athenians were able to establish democracy in 403 BC. Athens rebuilt their navy and became an important force among Greeks. To maintain leadership in Greek affairs, Sparta encouraged crusade against Persians. The Persians had taken advantage of the internal struggle of the Greeks to impose their control over Greek city states in Asia Minor. The Spartans attacked Asia Minor in 396 BC. But, the Persians offered financial support to Athens, Thebes and other Greek city states to oppose Sparta. This led to a new war, the Corinthian war, 395 BC to 386 BC. The war ended when the Greek city states accepted king’s peace, dictated by the king of Persia. The city state of Thebes then exerted influence. The Thebans defeated the Spartan army in the battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. Gradually Spartan power declined and it was replaced by Theban power. But, Theban power was also short lived. The Greek city states continued their petty wars. They did not realise the growing danger coming from the north,, that Philip II of Macedonia is developing a unified state that could establish Macedonian authority over the Greeks and end the destructive fratricide of the Greek city states. Works Cited Ancient Greek City-States . 2011. 5 May 2011 . CD, Encyclop?dia Britannica 2011 Ready Reference. Athens. Gill, N.S. Pericles' Funeral Oration. 2011. 5 May 2011 . Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization: To 1715. 5 May 2011 . Read More