Is the Private Sector Creating Sustainable Housing Developments Within the UK - Dissertation Example

?Topic: Is the private sector creating sustainable housing developments within the UK? Sustainability Sustainability became a byword when the naturalconditions of the earth’s resources were seen to be depleting and policy-makers needed shorthand to encompass efforts at making the most of possible continuity of human existence. Sustainability is thus defined in various ways and for various means but the World Commission on Environment and Development defines sustainability as the ability to meet “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987). Various methods are also employed to determine the needed approach for sustainability including Wackernagel and Rees’ (1996) ecological footprint which measures the given area’s sustainability with the total goods, services, energy and land which it consumes as appropriated against its carrying capacity. Two models have been proposed by Whitehead (2011) based on the priority: balanced and hierarchical. The balanced sustainability model proposes for an equal treatment and role of the ecological, social and economic forces whereas the hierarchical proposes a strong priority on ecological forces as followed by social and lastly economic (Appendix A & B). The issue on sustainability stemmed from the realisation that the natural environment is easily exploited for consumption benefits but great economic output does not always relate to possible restoration of the degraded ecosystem back to its original condition (Ayres, van den Bergh and Gowdy, 1998). When notable changes to the natural environment as well as the devastating effects of production and consumption from climate change to loss of biodiversity, and failure to meet basic human needs were realised, the debate on sustainability began. In 1987, the World Commission on sustainable development reported Our Common Future highlighting alternative paradigm for humanity to address environmental degradation and world poverty. Within the next twenty years sustainable development became a key policy objective for governments and international bodies, business and even individuals (Hobson, 2004). Incidentally, UK has a national sustainable development framework as one of the best in the world (Porritt, 2009; Hobson (2004). The good news was that UK was not alone in this lack of solid action with sustainability as other major post-industrial countries also exhibit failed initiatives (Hobson, 2004). Importance of the UK private housing industry: private/public accounts for ...percentage The UK Housing Social housing in the United Kingdom is characterised by private funding of housing associations mediated and guided by appropriate government agencies. It is further described by Oxley (1998) as facing many challenges including the low income of tenants relying mainly on state benefits; macroeconomic reasons led to reduced government support; continued pressure to reduce public spending on housing; substantial backlog of housing repair and maintenance work by council; and a high demand for more social housing (673). The most apparent view was that there were affordability and investment problems as the government encouraged private finance and not-for-profit organisations to become Registered Social Landlords. Local authority housing was transferred into owner-occupation and to housing associations or organisations wherein companies are formed from a local authority to newly created organisation which owns and manages housing at “arms length” from the local authority (674). In 1981, 28% of English housing stock was managed by local authorities but this has since decreased since 1988 when the government shifted role from housing providers to strategic enablers. By 1994, only 18% of the housing stock remained under local authority and council house building reduced to only one per cent by 1994. This was a result of the housing investment programmes or HIPs of the government. It reviews bids for the use of resources as well as permits borrowing and spending on house-related activities. Local authorities were decreased of permission to borrow money for housing development which resulted to massive reduction of building council houses (Oxley, 1998). Central government contributions have served as the main route for subsidies to council housing using the housing revenue accounts or HRAs. Costs and payments on on-going council housing all pass through the HRA while costs of financing debt and maintenance, as well as management expenses are paid from HRA. Incomes includes rent and subsidies but starting in the 1980s, rents were increased while subsidies were cut (Oxley, 1998). The Right to Buy legislation of 1980 allows 20% of the sales receipts per annum for reinvestment but this has been adjusted to 25% by 1989 but 75% was used for redeeming debt or set aside for future debt redemption, and for accounting purposes, this has been labelled as “negative public expenditure” (Oxley, 1998, 675). Rent pooling also contributed to the council housing’s finances as notional surpluses rental income exceeded historical costs but these have been used to offset deficits on other parts of the stock (Oxley, 1998). An internal subsidy, the system maintained lower rent on newer properties and surpluses on local housing authorities occurred. However, these were not allowed to be finance non-housing activities and used only to pay housing benefit costs so that the Treasury saved money at the expense of local authority housing (Oxley, 1998). Housing Associations increased their share of the English housing stock from 2.3 to 4.1 by 1994. These associations are non-profit organisations managed by voluntary committees and thereby part of the private sector. In this instance, they have become the most favoured way for the government’s social housing investment. Oxley (1998) suggested that “Development is concentrated in the hands of the largest housing associations,” (675). They have become very important in the increase of social rented stock and provision of new social housing and they were under the supervision of the Housing Corporation. The Housing Corporation was charged with allocating public money and promotes the development of the association especially to private sector lenders (Housing Corporation, 1994). Whilst there is constant supply of new homes regulated by the UK government through private enterprise, these are seen as less affordable even where demand is increased (Maliene et al, 2008). section 3: government targets for sustainable builds International and local governments have fully come to understand the important role of nature and the environment on governance as a natural asset and resource with implications on human and animal health, trade, community well-being, climate change, and many more. This led to the necessity for the government to address its responsibilities beyond their means but also reach out to various sectors in society to contain if not lessen environmental problems that humanity has created (Bishop and Flynn, 1999). Greening of Government has been pursued by the Conservative and Labour administrations. It is emphasised in the Section 121 of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee (Wyn Jones, 1998). The Common Inheritance White Paper is seen as a coherent effort of the British government to address action, policies and targets in relation to the environment. The formulation was led by the Department of Environment with contributions from the Cabinet committee. It made two commitments to improve government cooperation with regards to environment policies: retain the cabinet committee set up to produce the White Paper, and nominate a Minister in each department to be responsible for the department’s policies and programmes. As the then Secretary of State for the Environment Michael Heseltine committed, “It is important to remember that the White Paper did not just set out a programme for my Department, but for the Government as a whole – We now have in place some of the most sophisticated machinery to be found anywhere in the world for integrating environment and other policies (Heseltine, 1991). The Labour Government of 1997 retained and upgraded the previous administration’s Cabinet Ministerial Committee on the Environment or ENV and the Green Ministers. It created the Sustainable Development Unit in the DETR which functioned as a cross-governmental resource but according to the Environment Audit Committee, rhetoric was not equalled by deeds (EAC 1998). Response to section 121 was the immediate establishment of a “Sustainable Development Unit” within the DETR (DETR, 1998). The European Commission was also credited to influencing sustainable development governance although majority of goals has been seen as economic in nature as exemplified by the Regional Technology Plan and European Regional Development Funding or ERDF (Bishop and Flynn, 1999). The centralised system of governance established procedures for the achievement of policy goals living little discretion to local governments. This led to the observation that “Higher level government applies sanctions to lower levels when they fail to perform prescribed roles or deviate from procedures,” (Bishop and Flynn, 1999, 65). Monitoring of compliance is the focus of higher levels of government in order to minimise conflicts on achieving government goals (May et al, 1995). In cases where there are different administrations between the Whitehall and the local government levels, different political agenda lead to coercion and use of non-elected bodies to circumvent local government (May et al, 1995). The solution has been geared towards a lesser emphasis on regulatory prescription and greater reliance on local governments for future environmental policy and pursuit of sustainability. Cooperative inter-governmental policy hopes to design and implement shared commitment among different layers of government to achieving environmental goals as well as foster practices that promote and not undermine sustainability (May et al, 1995). Littlewood and While (1997) suggested that the Agenda 21 of the United Kingdom is instrumental to achieving sustainable development in Britain through its administrative structure changes. Under section 121(1) of the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly of Wales is tasked to “make a scheme setting out how it proposes, in the exercise of its functions, to promote sustainable development.” It is tasked to establish institutional structures and operational processes that will facilitate and promote sustainable development across all its areas of responsibility (Bishop and Flynn, 1999). This is further pursued through the Environment Agency and the Countryside Council for Wales (Bishop and Flynn, 1999). However, emphasis has been seen on economic growth, thereby “sustainable development” was replaced by “sustainable growth” in policy papers such as mentioned on the White Paper “A Voice for Wales” (Secretary of State for Wales, 1997). The Sustainable Development Charter Group of Wales is a group of 25 environmental NGOs, key government agencies, and the Environmental Planning Research Unit at Cardiff University with the main task to shape the policy implications of the devolution process and coordinate attempts to lobby Parliament. This group led the lobbying and advocacy for sustainable development for governments not only in Wales but among other local agencies as outlined below: Implement the five guiding principles for development: decentralisation, regeneration, partnership, integration and sustainability (Prescott, 1997) Mission statement should have a principal objective at promoting sustainable development Adopt as its main duty to protect and enhance the environment Adopt an integrated approach to ensure that environmental and social costs be integrated as equally important with economic ones in all policies Openness and transparency should be guaranteed in all processes of governance and that environmental and social information should be readily accessible by the public UK international commitments on the conservation and protection of the environment should be complied with and enhanced Promote environment, enjoyment, quality of life, employment and education benefits (Sustainable Development Charter Group, 1998). As an example in the case of Wales, the Welsh Sustainable Development Unit was located within the Environment Division of the Transport, Planning and Environment Group. Its location, however, was seen as limiting sustainable development under the Environment Division only. It should be highlighted that sustainable development is a cross-sectional policy-goal that involves all sectors of the government as well as the private sector (Bishop and Flynn, 1999). In the local level, Bishop and Flynn (1999) determined several loopholes including the increased workloads of civil servants and collaboration between agencies. In the implementation of government policies on environment and sustainable development, various agencies are involved including the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, UK Round Table on Sustainable Development, Department of Environment, and partnership with NGOs such as the Sustainable Buildings Task Group, Carbon Trust, WasteWatch, Sustrans, Global Action Plan UK, among others. The UK Round Table on Sustainable Development and the Government Panel provided a Proposed National Partnership for Sustainable Development model (Appendix C) which was supposed to be independent from existing government bodies and conduct its own annual conference that will be answerable to the public. It is hoped to help shape the sustainable development programme with 10 individuals representing different perspectives that encompass: environment, education, economy, society, among others (Bishop and Flynn, 1999). In addition, information campaign focused on the 15 Headline Indicators composed of economic output, investment, employment, poverty and social exclusion, education, health, housing, crime, climate change, air quality, road traffic, river water quality, wildlife, land use, and waste (Hobson, 2004). Other governmental efforts also came from EU Directives, including the EU Working Hours Directive, the Work-Life Balance campaign of the Department of Industry, Working Parents laws, and the Energy White paper (Hobson, 2004). These are all seen to promote sustainable development. section 4: lack of prohibitions set to the private sector The Sustainable construction strategy has been mentioned as a joint effort between the Government and the Construction industry but without any binding effect (Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). Ross (2010) further noted the need to address key issues in sustainable development that the UK government need to address: “improving understanding, providing a comprehensive framework to integrate potentially conflicting priorities and providing an operational toolkit,” (1101). The consequences of the retarded actions of governments already resulted to alarming damages to the earth as it has already exceeded its ecological limits in the 1980s and regenerative capacity was exceeded at about 30% (WWF, 2008). Climate change, loss of biodiversity, and failure to meet basic human needs in many localities around the world are the more obvious consequences (SCBD, 2006). UK has adopted a national sustainable development framework and strategies considered as “some of the best in the world” (Ross, 2010, 1102) but still, decision-making has not kept pace to make former chairman of the Sustainable Development Commission Jonathan Porritt to admit that, “the mainstreaming of sustainable development in the UK, from the margins of the centre of government, is indeed underway, but is still moving too slowly in most respects,” (6). In addition to this, many nations have yet to adopt appropriate legal foundation and legislation to drive sustainable development (Ross, 2010). Whilst sustainable development regular appeared in statutes, its role is limited to legal objective, a procedural obligation, or as a legal rule for framework in decision-making (8). It is then necessary that the UK government produce a substantive or procedural obligation to secure the use of sustainable development and ensure legitimacy and legal recognition (Ross, 2010). Legislation is important in making people realise what are at stake, obligate them to conform, and punish or provide consequence as necessary (Ross, 2010). 5:modern methods of construction Sustainable housing, like all other concerns of governance, emerged from environmental efforts as sustainable cities were also addressed (Camagni et al, 2001) and more recently, sustainable communities. It is in turn guided in principle by sustainable construction policy through the national policy of: Zero Carbon New Homes of which the United Kingdom and Wales hope to achieve from 2016 onwards. The targeted annual net carbon emissions from all energy use in the home must be zero. It will be achieved through amendments to the Building Regulations that will require CO2 emissions from new homes to be 25% lower than the 2006 Building Regulations that started in 2010. By 2013, emissions will be 44% lower. New Homes are expected to be highly energy efficient through use of solar design and high levels of insulation and thermal mass. Electricity and heating shall be provided by renewable energy. These will be achieved through strong government leadership and active management (Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). Zero Carbon New Non-Domestic Buildings require all new schools to be zero carbon by 2016, all new commercial non-domestic buildings to be zero carbon from 2019 and new public sector ones be zero carbon by 2018 (Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). Code for Sustainable Homes replaced the EcoHomes as “the single national standard for assessing the sustainability of new homes,” ((Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008, 1). The Code provides six levels of rating with Level 6 as the highest and best. It sets the mandatory minimum performance standards higher even than that of Building Regulations. The Code encompass energy and CO2 emissions, waster efficiency and run-off, materials, waste, pollution, health and well-being, management and ecology ((Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). It mandates that all new homes must be rated against the Code and reported in the Home Information Pack starting 2008. Code Level 3 is mandatory on housing that were built with funds from the English Partnership and Housing Corporation for the period 2008-2011. It will move to a notch higher on 2012 and Level 6 by 2015 (Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). Water Efficiency in New Buildings amended in 2009 requires a minimum water efficiency standard of 125 litres/person/day for new homes which is about 20% lower than the average rating in 2008. The policy also proposed to improve water efficiency of key fittings as well as establish a minimum water efficiency standard for non-residential buildings (Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). Planning Policy Statements or PPPS on Planning and Climate Change guarantees that new developments reduce CO2 emissions through various methods that encompass location, form, layout and use of renewable and low-carbon energy. The plans should be resilient to the impacts of future climate change including temperature fluctuation, reduced water availability, flooding risks (Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). Mandatory Site Waste Management Plans or SWMPs is required for all construction projects in the UK that costs over ?300,000 starting in April 2008. Its goal is to improve resource efficiency through measured waste production on site as well as maximised reuse, recycling and disposal in order to minimise waste at source. Other efforts of the UK government towards sustainable housing include survey of existing buildings to review and identify measures to improve sustainability specifically on energy and water efficiency. It encompasses both residential, and non-residential (Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008). Sustainable construction strategy is a joint effort between the Government and the Construction industry to “deliver a radical change in the sustainability of the construction industry” although the targets are non-binding that only guides the future of government policy ((Devon Sustainable Building initiative, 2008, 2). The renewable energy policies of the UK target to source about 15% of its total energy from renewables by 2020, introduction of Feed in Tariff that will control price for electricity produced by renewable energy micro-generation technologies. This effort has allowed use of micro-generation devices without permission as long as these have minimal or no negative impact on neighbouring properties (Devon Sustainable Building Initiative, 2008). On the regional level, policy is focused on Regional Spatial Strategy for the South West or RSS which sets plan on each region as well as incorporate targets Non sustainable builds Vs Sustainable builds Sustainable housing is considered healthy and attractive that adds value and success of communities. However, sustainable building has been pointed out problematic due to lack of supply and its high cost or affordability. Sustainable communities are described with easily available housing, high quality, economic, ecological, aesthetically designed and comfortable (Maliene et al, 2008). In addition, it is a place where people want to live and work as their needs are met and those of future residents. They should be considerate to the environment, contribute to a good quality of life, safe, inclusive, well-planned, built, run and providing equal opportunities for all (Maliene et al, 2008). Various points of views are used to search for a sustainable housing – economic, social-psychological, and ecological. In addition, it should be integrated with the global experience in a creative manner to achieve higher standards of economic and social welfare (Maliene et al, 2008). Ideally, everyone is proposed to have the chance to live in a decent home with affordable price, in a place they want which provides opportunity and a better quality of life with a secure and attractive environment (CLG, 2007). It has been proposed that sustainable housing was considered less affordable and less accessible to the majority of UK residents (CLG, 2007). Conventional housing, on the other hand, were built massively starting after World War II and onwards when the UK government and many of Europe were addressing decay of urban areas as a result of the 19th and 20th century industrial revolution, as well as the ravages of war . Many architects were influenced by the urban dwelling proposed by Le Corbusier of which units were stacked up in high rise buildings where it would soon provide tenants with unliveable dwellings as many of its basic features are not working. The 1980s had the government restructure housing through the Urban Development Corporations and Enterprise Zones together with other projects that address capability of tenants as well as previous problems of failed urban areas, poor quality of construction, insensitive housing management and lack of choice by tenants (Maliene et al, 2008). Housing cost where demand was high kept housing less affordable, caused homelessness, and other problems. On the other end, where housing has low demand, many are unoccupied due to un-affordable costs (Maliene et al, 2008) Benefits and disadvantages of sustainable builds In consideration of the discussed need, sustainability led to commercialisation and industrialisation of all its aspects – renewable energy, waste disposal and management, faster and massive means of the natural cycle of consumption, and many others, worse of which has been the carbon trade-off where major polluters may buy permission from other polluters to produce more pollution. Whilst these initiatives were seen as solution of sustainability issues, it does not address the problems realistically. In the pursuit of renewable energy, massive production of solar panels for housing and industrial uses became the trend to lessen dependence on coals. This may be seen as beneficial and positive in the short term. Technological advances have allowed the integration of these solar panels that help produce electricity within the already existing homes without adoption of costly structural requirements (Reiche, 2009). However, the raw materials used, production, transportation of these solar panels are of question whether sustainable means were followed. The same can be said of other proposed technologies that aim to divert carbon elsewhere and not release it on the atmosphere, as well as the carbon trade-off that has been adopted by developed countries with questionable sustainability and environment policies. Another sustainable approach to building homes that has been adopted was the recycling of used materials to produce new ones. Recycled glasses as tiles, recycled woods pulped to produce new wooden boards and other costly production means that indeed “recycle” but using much or more energy than the recycled materials’ previous state. Various methods are employed in order to achieve sustainable buildings for houses. Direct recycling of used materials was employed by some such as that of the Dalby Forest Visitor Centre in North Yorkshire. It used old tyres and inner tubes for roofing, use of microwind turbine and photovoltaic panels for electricity, and many recycled items for the building’s various features.The RSBP environment and education centre in Purfleet, Thames Gateway uses wind turbines, locally sourced raw materials such as sheep wool for insulation, translucent roof for day-lighting, amongst others. A home in Honingham, Norfolk has an earth-shetered social housing with majority of its side covered by earth and plants and built without conventional heating and cooling systems, maintained at only ?3.80 per week (Miller, 2007). One showcase residential building that is considered sustainable was located in Bow, east London with good insulation, 40% of electricity was supplied by photovoltaic panels, and 50% form microwind turbines. Its costs about 15% more than the regular property of the same size (Miller, 2007). In contrast to its long-term consumption, the cost provides a cheaper option for buyers. Hobson (2004) further noted how the consumer is left on their own to decide what may be sustainable on their understanding, of which they are “ascribed with responsibility for creating sustainable consumption patterns,” (121) and that the UK government is doing little to change the profligate resource consumption prevalent I the country, and elsewhere. This echoed the Fabian Society’s observation that individuals have a lot of choices for consumption but they are given less participation on more important issues such as safety, environment, effective education, among others (Levett, 2003). It also meant higher gross domestic product and the parallel decline of well-being. The means of sustainable development focuses once again on economic gains and less on quality of life as already highlighted in the United Nation’s Agenda 21 pointing out the inefficient overconsumption practices of the United States, many European Union countries, Japan, and Australia was the major cause of consumer boom in in 1990s and the crash that followed it. Agenda 21 was specific to point out that not only institutions but also individuals should be responsible in adopting sustainable consumption in order to break the ruinous produce-use-dispose cycle (Hobson, 2004). In analysing the current approach of sustainable consumption in the UK, Hobson (2004) noted the economy-first approach of which there is a maintenance of the current consumption level and practices to sustain economic growth but with consideration to resource efficiency of production methods and consumption practices. This meant that businesses adopt greening techniques in their operational and material processes, and individual consumers are encouraged to reuse, recycle and repair. This method reduces the impact of urgency for adopting sustainable consumption in its most ideal level such as development of community cohesion in the process of creating community vegetable gardens, organic production and consumption, amongst others (Hobson, 2004). This is seen as a win-win approach, and “has gained the most political support in post-industrial nations such as the United Kingdom. Here, a market-orientated, “resource-efficiency-while-maximizing profits” paradigm has prevailed in government and business since the rise of environmental issues on the international political agenda,” (123). Policy is then geared towards labelling of products to inform consumers of the product’s environment impact, infrastructure initiatives such as the coding approach, and public campaigns. Despite all efforts at sustainable development, the WasteWatch (2002) reported that about 25.1 million tons of waste came from households, placing waste generated per person at one ton per annum. Of this, 85% of waste was sent to landfill sites indicating the conspicuous consumption as rising. Conclusion: Sustainability it seemed remains as the only option for governments, businesses, and individuals to adopt in order to proceed properly with humanity and its civilisation. The individual participation to sustainability is mandatory. Therefore, even people’s homes should be sustainable in order to thread safely with nature and human existence. Proper description and agreement to sustainability should be incorporated in global agreements or international bodies. It will guide governments and their policy-makers to adopt specific measures and legislations to forward the cause. Without the necessary legal framework for sustainability, however, all efforts will become nil. As already suggested, appropriate rewards and punishments should be incorporated in the legal actions about sustainability for it to become effective and seriously considered. Like any other law, violation should amount to consequential penalties. In the legislation process, sustainable building for homes should also encompass sensibility on the natural environment, all factors about production and recycling, and the natural cycle of life that even mighty humans leave this earth should be considered. Ethos such as minimal destruction or negative impact and maximum ecological imprints should become a way of life for all. References: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmenvaud/779/779.pdf Bishop, K. and Flynn, A. 1999. The National Assembly of Wales and the Promotion of Sustainable Development: Implications for collaborative government and governance. Public Policy and Administration 1999 14: 62 Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1998), 'Memorandum submitted by the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions to the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee report on Greening Government', House of Commons Paper HC5 17-II, Stationery Office, London. Devon Sustainable Building Initiative. (2008). Sustainable Construction Policy at a national and regional level within the South West. Briefing Paper, October. Heseltine, M. (1991), The Environment Business, the Shell Lecture in association with The Green Alliance, 7 May. Littlewood, S. and While, A. (1997), 'A New Agenda for Governance? Agenda 21 and the Prospects for Holistic Local Decision Making', Local Government Studies, Vol 23, No 4, pp.1 11-23. Maliene, Vida and Joseph Howe and Naglis Malys. 2008. Sustainable Communities: Affordable Housing and Socio-economic Relations. Local Economy 2008 23: 267 May P.J., Burby, R.J., Ericksen, N.J., Handmer, J.W., Dixon, J.E., Michaels, S. and Smith, D.I. (1996) Environmental Management and Governance, (London: Routledge). Miller, V. 2007. Top 10 eco-buildings. 22 November. Guardian. Accessed from http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/nov/22/ethicalliving.renewableenergy Porritt, J. The Standing of Sustainable Development in Government, November 2009; p. 10; Accessed May 2011 from http://www.jonathonporritt.com/pages/2009/11/the_standing_of_sustainable_ de.html Prescott, J. (1997), quoted by Nick Raynsford MP in his address to the Royal Town Planning Institute National Planning Conference, 11 June 1997. Reiche, D. 2009. Renewable Energy Policies on the Gulf countries: A case study of the carbon-neutral “Masdar City” in Abu Dhabi. Energy Policy. Ross, A. Why Legislate for Sustainable Development? An Examination of Sustainable Development Provisions in UK and Scottish Statutes. J. Environ. Law 2008, 20, 35-68. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Global Biodiversity Outlook (GBO-2), 2006; Accessed May 2011 from: http://www.cbd.int/gbo2/ Secretary of State for Wales (1997a), A Voice for Wales, (Cardiff: The Stationery Office). Sustainable Development Charter Group (1998), A Greener National Assembly for Wales, (Cardiff: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds). Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W. 1996, ‘Ecological Footprints for Beginners’ in Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W., Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing human impact on the earth, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, pp. 7-30. Whitehead, I. 2011. Models of sustainability? A comparative analysis of ideal city planning in Saltaire and Masdar City. Geography, in the School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Australia. WWF; Zoological Society of London; Global Footprint Network. Living Planet Report 2008; p. 2; Accessed May 2011 from : http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/living_planet_ report/ Wyn Jones, G. (1998), 'Sustainable Development', in Osmond, J. (ed.), The National Assembly Agenda, (Cardiff: Institute for Welsh Affairs). Appendix: A: Balanced Sustainability Model Source: Whitehead, 2011 B: Hierarchical Sustainability Model Source: Whitehead, 2011 C: Proposed National Partnership for Sustainable Development Read More