Psychopathology and Addiction - Essay Example

Psychopathology and Addiction Introduction Over the past half-century the definitions of psychopathological disorders have become muddied as new research takes place and personality traits once thought to be psychopathological have become more tolerated by society as a whole. Addiction and psychopathology often go hand in hand and we aim to explore the relationship between them in this essay. We will need to be aware that one culture's addiction is another culture's norm and so we will need to establish "the norm" in terms of Western definitions and traditions. Whilst some traditional analysts such as Freud and Klein posited useful theories and practices in their time, therefore founding the art and science of psychoanalysis, raging debates have taken place since in attempting to determine the origins of psychopathology (nature vs. nurture) and of late the role of trauma, genetic predisposition and inherited addictions have become important factors as the biological sciences have advanced in terms of diagnostics where before it was entirely up to the psychoanalyst to determine. The purpose of this essay is to examine addiction and psychopathology specifically, exploring the definitions of what is normal and what is not, as these terms are defined today, as well as the addictive tendencies of psychopaths and how addictions, especially the effect of alcohol alters their behaviour. What Is Abnormal Behaviour Typically, abnormal behaviour is defined as behavours that are in violation of the culturally accepted norms (social interactions, nonverbal codes of conduct, method of dress, appropriate responses/empathy, treatment of pets/animals, respect of personal property and physical space). This definition can be deemed inappropriate in and of itself by simply asking the questions, "According to whose standards" Whilst abnormal behaviour has its own set of observable symptoms, which may or may not be biological in origin, psychopathy is deemed, in a nutshell, behaviours and actions, which are harmful to oneself and others. Specifically, one very good definition of psychopathology is: 'a constellation of affective, interpersonal, and behavioral characteristics including egocentricity; impulsivity; irresponsibility; shallow emotions; lack of empathy, guilt, or remorse; pathological lying; manipulativeness; and the persistent violation of social norms and expectations' (T. O'Connor, 2005). In the same article it is emphasized that 'most psychopaths are antisocial personalities but not all antisocial personalities are psychopaths.' Characteristics of psychopathy include: superficial charm, narcissism, excessive need for stimulation, deceptive behaviour and lying, manipulation, little or no remorse or guilt, poor self-control, predatory or parasitic attitude, early behavioral problems and criminal activity (Michael G. Connor, Psy. D., 2001 - 2005). Psychopathy can be divided into several sub-categories (Quantum Future Group, 1997 - 2004): Primary (do not respond to punishment, do not seem to have any sense of direction in life, are incapable of experiencing any genuine emotion) and Secondary (risk-takers, prone to worry and guilt, little impulse control). These two types can be further divided into: Distempered Psychopaths (fly into rages, sexually insatiable, powerful cravings such as alcohol/drugs) and Charismatic Psychopaths (charming, attractive liars who can easily persuade even intelligent and reasonable people into abhorrent or sacrificial acts, strong belief in their own stories). A long history of defining and treating psychopathology precedes the 21st Century, as does the various theories explaining how psychopathology occurs. In examining these theories, we must begin with Freud, whose work laid the foundations of modern psychotherapy. If we look at the core of Freud's theories regarding repression and the unconscious, it is relatively easy to see how the effect of alcohol can exacerbate psychotic behavior in individuals who are already psychopathological. Reduction in what inhibitions are intact would, according to Freud's theories, release the pent-up tension and encourage violent behavior. Freud's view of a sense of social order was that it begins with the child's relations with the parents and the experiences of relating to and maneuvering through the family unit was largely unconscious, or repressed (Marc Fonda, 1995). Much of Freud's theories were based upon nurturing, including psychotic behaviours. In compliment to Frued's theories, Winnicott and other analysts from the 1950's targeted mental illness (or psychotic) tendencies as stemming from separation of the infant from the parents or lack of quality care from the parents or care-givers. In this regard, the establishment of psychopathological behaviours would seem to lie in early development under stressful conditions of early life. Where Freud described later behaviours within groups as a repeat of familial tendencies and neuroses, Klein and Bion described group dynamics differently; their theories regarding psychotic behaviour as a group involved defencive splitting from the rest of society in order to survive as a whole (Laurence J. Gould, 1997). When looking at whole groups in terms of psychopathology, we see common traits in the individuals of the group, according to Dr. Gould's renditions of Bion's and Klein's work; put quite simply, the fear of abandonment from the group leader is the trigger for a plethora of abnormal behaviours such as over-dependency, aggression/hostility, childishness, adoration and obsessive loyalty. All of these behaviours are fear-based and greatly exaggerated in relation to well-adjusted individuals and groups. As we have advanced from the early strictly empirical method of defining psychopathology into sophisticated medical diagnostics, we are better able to determine which form of psychosis from which a maligned individual is suffering; these are now considered to be actual medical conditions, many treatable through drug and/or psychotherapy. Schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, Tourette's Syndrome and other illness are considered to be manageable in many cases. Still, many sufferers of these illnesses that are so debilitating go untreated or undiagnosed. A different class of psychopathological disorders exists in addition to the above, and this is neurosis. Neurosis The difference between neurosis and psychosis is that the former is fear-based and can be incapacitating if left untreated. The latter is an actual mental illness such as schizophrenia. Unlike psychosis, neurosis has no biological pathology. Still, neurosis can be controlled or managed through medication and therapy even though an organic cause may not be found. Anxiety, stress and phobias fall under the category of neurosis (One Step Forward, n.d.). A very intriguing definition of neurosis offered by Dr. Arthur Janov (1991) is this: 'Neurosis, then, is the defense against catastrophic reality in order to protect the development and psychophysical integrity of the organism.' Unlike psychosis, neurosis is the result of unmet needs, beginning in the developmental stages of life. Neurosis is the splitting off of needs from the mind in order to minimize the pain of needs that are not being met. These needs range from primal (hunger, thirst, warmth) to emotional (being held, caressed, etc.) in infancy and early childhood. Neurosis can lead to anti-social behaviours such as being demanding of attention or favours; excessive neediness and helplessness are other manifestations of neuroses that will alienate the individual from peers, further reinforcing the problem. In terms of capacity for violence, psychotic individuals are much more likely to become violent than neurotic ones. Psychotic individuals seek to do harm, neurotic individuals seek to fulfill their needs, however off-centre they appear to others. Now that we have covered biological and environmental mental illnesses, we must explore another phenomenon that has plagued humankind since time immemorial and intertwines with the previous maladies discussed: addiction. What Is Addiction Addiction used to be simply defined as an uncontrollable craving for a substance such as alcohol, narcotics or tobacco. In today's society, many more addictions have been identified such as sex, the Internet, music, adrenaline, and a plethora of other substances and activities which an individual uses as an escape from pain or stress. In this essay we shall examine the effects of alcohol, since it is still the most widespread and socially acceptable form of alleviating stress, yet a potent fuel for violence and other abhorrent behaviours in psychopaths. Alcohol Consumption and Behaviour Whilst it doesn't take a professional analyst to assess the effect of alcohol on human behaviour, there is comprehensive evidence that alcohol consumption impairs normal cognitive functioning and can severely impair judgment. In normal people, alcohol consumption lowers inhibitions for better or for worse; depending upon the individual, alcohol can release endorphins to produce happiness and relaxation, even forms of euphoria. On the other end, alcohol consumption can lead to depression or aggression whilst intoxicated. Intoxication has also been proven to provoke violence in normal people due to the highly emotional state alcohol consumption can produce; emotion is the keyword, as the emotions are heightened due to the effects of alcohol in higher cognitive systems (Curtin, et. al., 2001). In further studies, it has been discovered that 'alcohol-induced impairment of cognitive control processes may account for its disinhibitory effects on behavior' (Casbon, et. al., 2003). This finding is critical due to answering the questions regarding the connection between cognitive functions and behavioural actions whilst intoxicated; if in normal people these results are observed, then what does this mean for a psychopathic individual, whose cognitive and behavioural faculties are disconnected or dysfunctional Even further research uncovered the findings that intoxicated individuals were selectively impaired when cognitive control was the most critical (Curtin & Fairchild, 2003). Having established that cognitive abilities are weakened whilst intoxicated and already knowing that in psychopaths the cognitive functions are severely inhibited, we shall explore the effects of alcohol in psychopaths as opposed to normal individuals. One item to bear in mind when relating alcohol to violent tendencies in either normal people or those with psychopathic tendencies is predisposed aggression before consuming alcohol. Research has indicated that across the board, aggressive personality types become more aggressive when intoxicated (Moeller & Dougherty, 2001). In terms of drug addiction, earlier research has argued with Fruedian theories regarding the infant/mother relationship as being the source for addictive behaviour (being weaned too soon, etc.) and has posited that drug addiction can stem from physical dependence and fear of withdrawal, plain and simple (Alfred A. Lindesmith, 1968, Ch. 7). Research into psychopaths and alcoholism have indicated that since a psychopath has no sense of remorse or consequence for his or her behaviour, and since alcohol inhibits higher cognitive functions, a psychopath who is addicted to anything, including alcohol, has no reason to overcome the addiction (ACER News Release, 2003). Even Lindesmith agreed in 1968 that because of their criminal tendencies, psychopaths are more prone to addiction than normal people, stating that 'they are struggling with a sense of inadequacy, imagined or real, or with unconscious pathological strivings that narcotics temporarily remove; and the open make-up that so many of them show is not a normal expression of men at ease with the world, but a mechanism of inferiors who are striving to appear like normal men' (Addiction and Opiates). Other Forms Of Addiction In the case of serial killers, an addiction to killing preceded by sadistic acts such as forced oral sex showcase extreme pathological behaviour. One such case was Christopher Wilder, am Austrailian-born psychotic serial killer who was a predator of women in the United States (Utah) and called 'The Beauty Queen Killer' (Katherine Ramslend, 2005). Wilder began showing abnormal behaviour in his teens (although raised in a stable environment), peeking into women's windows then later being involved in a gang rape for which he received one year of probation and shock therapy. Apparently the shock therapy fueled his sexual fantasies, for in his further deviant behaviour with women he imagined shocking them into submission for his pleasure. In this cited report, it is admitted that the addiction to sadism and killing is one of the most perplexing to understand. In terms of addiction to substances, recent findings suggest that alcohol reduces the level of seratonin in the brain, which can lead to psychotic behaviour such as violence if the addiction is in the later stages (Caldwell C. Nuckols, Ph.D., 2004). In this report, it is stated that stimulant drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine induce psychopathic tendencies in normal people by 'toxic alterations of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine.' This can lead to violence, making this the leading cause of death amongst users of these specific drugs. A state of hyperarousal is induced, and the user becomes paranoid. In the case of anabolic steroid use over time, a buildup of steroids in the system via 'stacking' or 'pyramiding' (taking oral steroids followed by injectable steroids) can induce rage and violence (Nuckols). Finally we will address Internet addiction as a modern tool for both normal and psychopathological people: This powerful tool connects people worldwide, instantaneously. According to some budding studies, the narcissist is the most prone to Internet addiction due to an obsessive need to be noticed and elevated (Sam Vaknin, 3 July 2004). Sexual predators also show addictive tendencies with the Internet, since it offers an easier way to lure victims into their abhorrent fantasies and carry out their acts (Donna Hughes, Ph.D., 1999). This type of psychopath now has easier ways to engage others through use of mail-order brides, chat rooms, pornography and other means that encourages addiction to the internet and delivering instant gratification, not to mention the increased possibility of turning cyber-fantasy into reality (Hughes, Sexual Predators Online, 2001). Conclusion Whilst psychopathology may never be fully understood due to its complex and varied causes, many of which have no basis in the environment of early childhood, further research must be conducted to enable society to manage/control deviant behaviours in order to protect potential victims. Addictions are difficult to treat in normal people who have become physically or psychologically dependent on substances in order to cope with the stresses of everyday life, illness or pain but addiction in psychopaths is especially dangerous since they lack the mechanisms of conscious and substance abuse escalates their behaviour to very dangerous proportions. Where traditional psychotherapy in the past used psychotics as a means of study and experimentation within institutionalized settings, the advocacy of human rights and reduced budgets for mental institutions have now restricted studies to prisons where incarcerated abnormal criminals are more difficult to study with the same type of testing equipment. In the past, psychopaths were largely institutionalized and kept from society but today the pervasive problem of criminal behaviour due to the increased presence of psychopaths in our society is an important problem to deal with in a constructive fashion. Further studies from a neuro-biological standpoint are warranted to further understand the mechanics of these maladies and search for remedies; however, in the case of addictions, especially alcohol and drugs and the psychopath's refusal to cooperate with treatment renders authorities and therapists relatively helpless in rectifying the problem. Addiction is a complex study full of theories and debates; the fact is, no one really seems to have a solid theory regarding addictions even in normal people, but it is clear that psychopaths had addictive tendencies due to the nature of their illnesses. It seems that early prevention, in childhood, might be effective in treating psychotic behaviour in terms of prevention and criminality upon maturation of the individual. Works Cited 'Antisocial Alcoholics Are Emotionally Unavailable', Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research. 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