American History - Reconstruction Succeeded in Reintegrating the Union - Essay Example

? Topic: Lecturer: Presentation: Introduction The civil war which was the deadliest in American history left the South smashed thus the post-war period was that of Reconstruction. The main aim of this Reconstruction was to bring the confederate states back to the union and to punish those had engaged in the rebellion. It was also aimed at enhancing racial equality especially after the blacks were freed from slavery. The period thus began with presidential Reconstruction with Abraham Lincoln on the helm of leadership but his Reconstruction plan was moderate in nature and set conditions for rebel states to rejoin the union. The presidents that assumed office thereafter continued with the same trend though they were more sympathetic to the white South. The Republican Radicals were not happy with the presidential Reconstructions hence decided to take over the mandate themselves through the congress. Although congressional Reconstruction was moderate it managed to secure some civil and political rights for the blacks especially through the push of Republican Radicals. The issue of most contention during this period was the social rights which most of the Americans believed should be earned through hard work and not through legislations. In the end, the question that needs to be answered is; were Reconstruction goals achieved? This paper will argue that although Reconstruction succeeded in reintegrating the union, the attempt to grant civil rights to the country’s black population was already lost by 1877. This is because although Black rights were afforded through the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the US constitution and the Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1875, much of it was reversed by the Jim Crow laws with the blessing of the Supreme Court. The terror groups such as Ku Klux Klan, Red Shirts and White League also did not give opportunity to the blacks to enjoy their rights. This was further worsened by the union of Northerners and Southerners at the expense of black rights. 100 years after the end of slavery, racial inequality still persisted and continues to haunt Americans to date. Abraham Lincoln in his inaugural speech stated clearly his plans for Reconstruction of the South even before the war had ended. By 1863, the confederates had already accepted defeat and were waiting to be reprimanded by the Union. However, civil the war ended in 1865. Lincolns Reconstruction was very moderate and lenient. In December 1863 he made a proclamation of amnesty and Reconstruction granting pardon to those who took oath to support the constitution of United States and the Union of states.1 He also established provisional governments which were to be under executive control. The only individuals exempted from amnesty were those who aided in the rebellion especially confederate army and navy. Conspicuously missing in oath-taking, voting and holding office in the new governments were the blacks. This is despite his declaration that “the restoration of Rebel states to the union must rest upon the principle of civil and political equality of both races”.2 This clearly indicates that the intention of Reconstruction from onset was the unity of the union while the black rights were relegated to the background. The emancipation proclamation of 1863 freeing all slaves had given hope to the blacks that their condition would improve but this was just rhetoric. According to Kenneth Stamp a great historian, Lincolns hope was to persuade a great mass of blacks to leave the country although his views had changed by 1865 when he was assassinated. By this time, he believed blacks could become integral part of American life.3 He faced his death due to his insistence on abolition of slavery especially in the south. After him came Andrew Johnson in 1865. The reign of Johnson was filled with many gains as well as losses. Many Republicans had high hopes that he would deliver the promise of racial equality and punish the rebel states. His hatred for the South planter class was apparent and in his inaugural speech he had clearly stated that ‘Treason is crime and crime must be punished.”4 He blamed these planters for the rebellion and promised to make them pay. However, the bone of contention was how to punish the rebels and what to do with the freed slaves. The Republicans were of the view that rebels property should be confiscated and given to the former slaves hence the famous clause of “forty acres and a mule” propagated by Sherman a union general. The Freedmen’s Bureau’s work was to redistribute this land and also protect the interests of the blacks.5 Johnson on the other hand, wanted the rebels to be humiliated by bowing before him begging for mercy. The blacks were not on his agenda unless to serve his interests such as in the elections. Johnson despite being a southerner disliked the wealthy planter class but it was his hatred for the blacks that shaped his Reconstruction plans. According to Foner, Johnson subscribed to the dogma of state rights just like the Southerners and as such, his presidency was a relief to many Southerners.6 His main goal was to unite the South and the North and had little concern for blacks. For him, the blacks were just landless and rightless laborers and had no place in Reconstruction. To the relief of Southerners, he set very easy terms for them. He made an amnesty proclamation pardoning those who took oath of allegiance. In return, rights of property were restored to them and just like Lincoln; he excluded the slaves from getting property rights. Instead, he returned the confiscated land during Lincoln’s era from blacks to the owners in 1865. This left them landless hence unable to enjoy the fruits of free labor as envisaged by the Northerners. Without free labor, their prosperity and freedom was limited leaving them in a worse off condition than that of slavery. It also hindered acquisition of social rights just like the whites. Richardson noted that these rights were to be acquired through hard work7 but if the blacks did not own land, how could they be elevated? Land meant everything to blacks especially after fighting hard for the union in the civil war. Johnson just his predecessor continued strengthening state governments. These states were supposed to write own constitutions and to establish government under it. Furthermore, he neither made it mandatory for these states to grant blacks suffrage nor to enact laws protecting freedmen. Each state could enact its own laws thus denying the former slaves most of their rights granted through the 13th Amendment to the constitution especially the voting rights.8 In addition, Black Codes were introduced in the South further limiting their rights. African-Americans now worked under wage labor contracts and the Black Codes dictated the conditions of work such as the working hours.9 Vagrancy was prohibited and those found guilty were fined. The Republicans who had high hopes that Johnson would not be sympathetic to Southerners were disappointed. Johnson was not serving their interests of ensuring racial equality but was just concerned with reintegrating the union. According to Ferrell they thus “used their victories in the 1866 elections to ensure Reconstruction was more than just Johnson’s “restoration” of antebellum South minus slavery”. 10 This marked the beginning of Congressional Reconstruction and the first task accomplished was passing of the Civil Rights Acts of 1866. The Act was written by Lyman Trumbull and gave “full and equal benefit of all law s and proceedings for security of persons and property as enjoyed by white citizens.”11 The aim of the Republicans from onset was to acquire civil and political rights for the blacks and the Act was a step forward towards this goal. These civil rights are crucial in order to function as a free worker and a stepping stone to acquiring social rights. They include rights to sue, give evidence, buy, sell, and inherit and to hold property among others. This was a great achievement for the blacks especially because it overturned the Black Codes used to deny blacks rights.12 However, the Southern Democrats were not happy about it as they believed they should not have equal rights as the blacks as they were a more superior race. Furthermore, if blacks owned property they were bound to lose important part of plantation labor. All in all, the Act laid the foundation for other legal enactments such as the 14th and 15th Amendments. In addition to the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the congress passed four reconstruction bills between 1867 and 1868 but first the 14th Amendment will be discussed as it formed the basis of some of these reconstruction Acts. According to this Amendment passed in 1868 “all persons born or naturalized in the U.S and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of U.S and of state wherein they reside.”13 This was an extension of civil rights granting legal equality to the blacks. As Ferrell puts it the Amendment did not guarantee the blacks the right to vote or equal suffrage as it only required the states to register individuals but did not clarify who or how registration was to be carried out.14 Besides, the emergence of terror groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and state legislations made it impossible for blacks to enjoy these rights. For example, a black could be threatened, beaten or lynched if he or she testified in conventional or congress hearings. Moreover, they could only testify against fellow blacks and not the whites. The Southern Democrats were not willing to enact these pieces of legislation as they undermined their superiority as whites. Reconstruction was guided by the Reconstruction Acts of 1867. The first Reconstruction Act was to do away with the state governments set up by Johnson in favor of new national government. The states which had not ratified the 14th Amendment were put under 5 military districts headed by generals. As such, the period is commonly referred as military Reconstruction. An important advancement for blacks was that they were allowed to vote for state constitutional conventions.15The Republican Radicals were bent on punishing the rebels and thus barred them from congress unless they took oath of loyalty. Some of them were barred from office-holding and voting. The Act also required the states to guarantee black suffrage. The Democrats were angered by this move because as for them and Johnson, Reconstruction had been over since 1865. To start new governments was ridiculous. However, the old governments had to operate for a few more months until next election. The only problem with this Act is that it ignored the Radical Republicans goals of land reform and black education.16 The second Reconstruction Act stipulated the role of military commanders in voter registration, scheduling elections and convening constitutional conventions. As such, it ensured black suffrage is taken care of. The third Act also served to ensure enactment of 14th Amendment and the items on Reconstruction Acts. Those found blocking proper administration of Reconstruction were to be punished. The last Reconstruction Act set conditions for approving new constitutions. In this case, only majority of those voting was required as opposed to earlier requirement of majority registered voters.17 Whites would use this clause to evade voting if they wanted to jeopardize Reconstruction efforts. The legislations by the congress had a lot of benefits for the blacks. By 1868, most of them could vote and even hold offices. They also had access to schools thanks to the Freedmen’s Bureau taking care of black interests especially education. However, the critical issue of land remained unresolved. The congress was not able to confiscate land and give to former slaves as promised. Instead, a new form of farming known as sharecropping arose and according to Ferrell “it did not provide economic independence that would protect black suffrage.”18According to this type of farming, the blacks were neither slave nor free. The system entailed renting land from landlords and in exchange for tools, seeds and equipments they would give up a part of their harvest. The system notes Mandle made the blacks immobile.19 These blacks could not find labor outside cotton plantations such as in industries and if they left before the time of harvest, it meant forfeiting their income. A credit system also emerged that contributed to labor immobility as one had to prove credit worthiness. Moreover, blacks were held by debt peonage. This meant they could not leave a plantation due to debt as the planters forbid them to do so. As such, even though the blacks were no longer slaves, they were not free as they could not exercise their choice. They also could not get land to purchase due to discrimination and failure to have enough funds to buy land. The Freedmen’s Bureau which could have protected their rights was undermined by Johnson whose focus was on white supremacy.20 Threats to black land buyers and white sellers by terrorist groups were prevalent thus hindering blacks from owning land. To make matters worse, the Republican leaders or federal government did little to protect blacks. To further black rights, the 15th Amendment was passed and ratified in 1870. This was during the reign of Ulysses Grant (1869-1877) who took over from Johnson and it also marked the end of congressional Reconstruction. Grant was less concerned with Reconstruction efforts and his policies were guided by political considerations.21 The Northerners had also lost interest in Reconstruction and were concerned with economic issues and sectional harmony. The fifteenth Amendment to constitution declared that “the right of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the US or by any state on account race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”22 The Amendment thus extended suffrage nationwide not just the South. It also gave blacks equality under the law and citizenship although just like the other legislations, it did not guarantee the right to vote. As such, some states introduced literacy tests, property and poll taxes to bar blacks from registering as voters or voting. These were not discrimination on racial ground. Besides, the terrorist groups such as Red Shirts, White League and Ku Klux Klan used violence, threats and intimidation to prevent blacks from exercising their rights. The same methods were used to redeem states from Republican and federal control by the redeemers. Though blacks had rights, they could not enjoy the fruits. The Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871 were passed by congress to ensure implementation and protection of the black rights. The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 also prohibited terrorist groups from denying blacks their rights. Those caught were convicted if at all there were any convictions. Most of the violators went Scot free due to reluctance of victims to testify and lack of dedication by Radical Republicans and the Grant administration in general. Furthermore, the economic depression of 1873 diverted attention to economic issues.23 In the 1874 elections, the Democrats took over control of government. The Republicans lost due to claims of corruption by carpetbaggers and scalawags. The Northerners were also tired of paying taxes to maintain the blacks especially in the wake of the depression. Another reason was use of violence, intimidation and economic coercion by Southerners. Blacks and white Republicans were prevented from voting by terror groups using such means.24 As a result of violence, the blacks started pushing for further protections and agitating for social rights such as accommodation, cemetery, inns, schools, transport and other public places. The whites both from North and South were against such rights being handed over to blacks on a silver platter. They claimed blacks had to work hard to earn such rights as granting them through legislation was promoting laziness. Furthermore, it would lead to more taxation due to enlarged Republican government. The whites could not envisage a situation where segregation was nonexistent or sharing facilities with blacks. In the end, the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was passed eliminating such segregation in public facilities and services except cemeteries.25 However, this was just done in honor of the rights advocate (Charles Sumner) who had just died and not willingly. The 1876 controversial election and the compromise of 1877 that saw Rutherford Hayes become president marked the end of Reconstruction. Immediately after assuming office, he removed troops from confederate states thus enabling Democrats to take control of the governments. This left the blacks without any form of protection bearing in mind the rampant violence experienced during elections.26 In this sense, the North and the South united at the expense of black rights. The Jim Crow laws of 1883 with the blessing of Supreme Court hit the nail on the head. They removed important sections from the Civil Rights Act of 1875 and eventually made it unconstitutional. The slaughterhouse cases of 1873 also undermined the 13 and 14th Amendments y declaring states had powers to enact own laws as they deemed fit. The 1876 US v Reese Supreme Court decision ruled that the 15th Amendment did not confer voting rights but just prohibited voting restrictions based on race thus states could use other restrictions such as poll tax thus undermining the Amendment.27 The Plessy v Ferguson decision strengthened Jim Crow laws by establishing the principle of ‘separate but equal’ thus legalizing segregation. This meant blacks and whites could enjoy similar facilities but not the same; in other words, they could not mix. Facilities were to be separate and these laws structured race relations for decades. In the end, black rights were forgotten and most of the gains made reversed through Supreme Court decisions. However, the North and South were reintegrated by their racial supremacy and had no concerns for blacks. Conclusion The post-war period was that of Reconstruction efforts to restore the South after being smashed by the war. The main aim of Reconstruction was to reintegrate the union and also ensure racial equality. The presidents thus embarked on moderate Reconstruction efforts which were taken over by congress and Radical Republicans and later by Supreme Court. Through the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments as well as the Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1875; the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, a lot of gains were made in granting black rights. However, the use of violence, intimidation and economic coercion by terrorist groups in the South prevented the blacks from enjoying such rights. The Southerners also reversed gains made be developing own laws that limited black rights such as Black Codes and discrimination on voting based on other means except race. The Supreme Court did much to reverse most of the gains made by upholding Jim Crow laws and legalizing segregation. By 1877, when Hayes assumed office, the union had been reintegrated but the attempt to grant civil rights to black population was already lost. 100 years later, the goal of racial equality remained a mirage until second Reconstruction of 1950s to 1970s. References Ferrell, CL (2003) Reconstruction. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Foner, E (2002) Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Franklin, JH (1994) Reconstruction after the Civil War. 2ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mandle, J R (1994) Not Slave, Not Free: The African American Economic Experience Since the Civil War. USA: Duke University Press. Richardson, HC (2004) The Death of Reconstruction: Race, Labor, and Politics in the Post- Civil War North, 1865-1901. USA: Harvard University Press. Shapiro, H (1988) White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery. Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press. Trefousse, H.L (1999) Reconstruction: America’s First Effort at Racial Democracy. Malabar, Fla: Krieger. Read More