The Protestant reformation - Essay Example

1. Discuss the causes of the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation when he nailed his manifesto on the chapel door on October 31, 1517, in Wittenberg. The manifesto consisted of ninety-five theses. That day was the Feast of All Saints in which pious folk came to venerate the precious relics of His Highness the Elector, Frederick the Wise. Valuable indulgences were gained when one venerates the relics. Luther's document were about the abuse of the granting of indulgences to the people. He stated that those preaching in favor of indulgences make a serious error when they say that these indulgences alone can grant man salvation. Luther stated that the indulgences have only one merit, which is to bring money to the church. He also attacked the theological teachings of Catholicism. He stated that true contrition means being open to doing penance for their sins. The indulgences granted by the Church remits the punishment due to sin. Luther believed in justice by faith alone without the necessity of good works. Through the grace of Jesus Christ, the soul's sins are covered by a cloak of light. Thus the one means and only hope of salvation is to entrust oneself to Christ, as it were to cling to Him. There were many causes of the Protestant Reformation. First, the moral authority of the Church in the temporal and spiritual spheres had been diminished. This development was due to the opulence and liberal ways of the Church leaders and bishops at that time. By the sixteenth century, pockets of discontent and indignation had seriously affected Christian unity in France, England, Italy and Germany. The strength of the Papacy had also weakened due to constant political differences with the different European leaders who harbored political ambitions. Difficulties and conflicts also rocked the Papacy. In 1305, a Frenchman ascended to the chair of Peter. The new pope, Clement V, settled in France. The Papacy established itself for 70 years at Avignon, France beginning in 1307. It was during this time that the Papacy had diminished in influence and in public esteem. The Popes had been seen as opulent, bureaucratic, politically-astute politicians and businessmen. Due to the shifting loyalties of its closest allies, the Papacy had also lost its independence and international character. Pope Gregory XI vigorously pursued the heretics and remained true to the faith. After Gregory XI died, a new pope Urban VI, was elected to succeed him. However, the French, who were dissatisfied,decided to elect an anti-pope. Moreover, there was a rise in anti-clericalism in Europe combined with the spread of mysticism and heresy. (Gochberg 43) The most important cause of the Protestant Reformation was the abuse of the use of indulgences by some Catholic preachers. Some of them just wanted the money of the people and they made a business out of a holy practice. Many of the poor Catholics had felt offended and had decided to turn away from the faith. Some of these became Protestants. 2. Historians often consider to the Renaissance to be the "birth of modernity." It was during the Renaissance that Florence used her widespread and highly organized business to extend her banking business parallel to that of her commerce. Florentine banking business controlled the credit all over Christian Europe. The wealth of Florence established the banking business in the Middle Ages. Florence had trounced all its competitors. In 1338, there were eighty Florentine firms doing frenetic banking and exchange business. The Florentines had exchanges everywhere: London, Bruges, Paris, Avignon, Majorca, Pisa, Genoa and Venice. (Greer, 50) Renaissance represented a time for freedom for thought and culture. The Renaissance was the portal to secular humanism which emphasized of an anthropocentric perspective. In this scenario, man determines right and wrong. Secularism states that economics, society, and politics functions well without the intervention of religion. Religion, which used to dominate the affairs of society, was separated from it. There was a considerable progress in humanism, painting, science, and literature. Moreover, the influential intellectual passion of the Twelfth Century Renaissance had attained its highest peak in the Italian Renaissance of the Quattrocento. (Greer 54) The Renaissance signaled the start of modernity as prominent thinkers such Montaigne and Shakespeare brought out works which convey various post-medieval themes. The varied leaders of the Renaissance were devout Catholics such as Erasmus and Montaigne. These writers and thinkers were humanists. The Renaissance humanists, in general, felt that human knowledge was limited. They started the review of classical history and classical literature. They started the study of the classics of Greek and Roman antiquity focusing on history, politics and poetry rather than in religion and philosophy. Thus, the Renaissance recovery of the classics was a recovery of certain types of classic writings. (Greer 52) The Renaissance Humanists felt that the recovery of ancient history and literature had increased their passion for multiple diversity and appropriate dependence of human affairs. The interesting consequences of human character and personality were highlighted. The Renaissance paid full interest and focus to history and historical difference in a way that the medievals had not. (Greer, 51) During the Twelfth-Century Renaissance, most of Western Europe had added to the cultural influence of the Greeks and Arabs. Learning and cultural revival resumed. Science, law, and classical literature were tackled in the cathedral schools and in the university. Vernacular literature in French, German, English, Provenal, and Italian flourished as new writers found and improved on their craft. Dante of Florence introduced the "Divine Comedy" to Europe during this period. 3. The Middle Ages are often referred to as the "Dark Ages." The early Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire at 410 and extended until 1350 after the European Renaissance from 1300 to 1500. The historians coined the term "Dark Ages" to describe the social and cultural decline which happened during the period. A composite group of Vandals, Alans, and Suevians had discovered the weak spot in the Roman defences and they launched a multi-pronged attack in those weak defenses. Thus, the Roman Empire fell into the power of the Barbarian hordes. The Greeks called these foreign tribes 'barbarians,' which showed the scorn felt by the civilization of the city towards the civilization of the tribe. (Thornton 5) Franks, Vandals, Alamans, Goths, Saxons and the Parthians, successors of the Persians, had all combined forces to defeat the Roman Army. The great civilizations of Greece and Rome had fallen. Life in Europe during the Middle Ages was very hard. There were no opportunities to undertake learning. There was uncertainty as to whether the prevailing conditions could improve. The only pillar of hope for the people during the Middle Ages was their Christianity. (Gochberg 66) During the medieval times, social events were important, and every citizen in a medieval town attended all types of activities. The fairs were filed with troubadours and acrobats, street merchants who peddled goods, tournaments featuring knights from local and foreign places. Medieval weddings were a major time for celebration for the entire town. Medieval superstitions dominated science. Globe-trotting merchants and returning crusaders spoke of the new cultures in Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Spices were imported from the East. Schools and universities were opened in Western Europe that would help medieval society evolve from the Dark Ages. (Gochberg, 20) It was only during the later part of the Middle Ages that educational opportunities flourished again. These educational opportunities were open to all social classes. They were available to the children of the peasant and to the children of the king. The education of chivalry started in the castles of the feudal lords. Many young men undertook this training which was necessary to protect their towns from foreign invaders. Chivalry offers a specialized kind of training that helped a man become a soldier, a courtier and a ruler. Many English youths were chosen to train for official positions in the king's palace, in the households of the bishops, and in the Royal Court. (Gochberg 34) References Thomas H. Greer. A Brief History of the Western World, Volume I: to 1715. New York: Gavin Lewis, 2004. Gochberg, Donald. Classic of Western Thought Series: The Ancient World, Volume I. US: Wadsworth Publishing, 2002. Machiavelli, Niccolo. William Connell, translator. Machiavelli's The Prince. US:Bedford/St. Martins, 2005. Thornton, Bruce. Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization. US: Encounter Books, 2002. Read More