Early Complex Societies, 3500 to 500 Before the Common Era - Essay Example

Information Early complex societies, 3500 to 500 B.C.E. (the pre ical period). This discussion focuses the approximate period of the inception of early complex societies, namely 3,500 B.C.E 500 B.C.E. Their rise and fall where closely associated with their internal dynamism or conservatism and how this affected their ability to adapt to their social and natural environment. The social and natural environmental considerations were multifarious and this discussion seeks only to discuss some of the most important factors such as geo-political location, technologies and socio-cultural development. Chronologically most of the existence of humans as a species has been spent in the Paleolithic, or Old Stone, Age which lasted for some 2 million years. During this period society consisted of small groups and developed language, rituals, and used basic tools made of stone. The Neolithic Revolution, a term given the adoption of agriculture, transformed economic, political, and social organization. Its beginning can be found in the Middle East as early as 10,000 B.C.E. The use of agriculture gradually spread or was adopted independently in centers, including parts of India, North Africa, America and Europe. It was not until about 3500 B.C.E. that the changes brought about by the Neolithic revolution brought about the development of early complex societies. Locations situated close to fertile river banks suited the development early complex societies because their economic production was based upon agriculture. Rivers were also used for cleansing and drinking as modern reticulation did not exist. Irrigation methods and calendars were developed to advance agricultural efficiency. Later, boats were constructed and used for transportation and trade. As the societies grew denser some of the other technological advances introduced were the potter's wheel, wheeled vehicles, improved shipbuilding allowing seafaring ships, and bronze tools. The four great river valleys commonly recognised as forming the basis of early civilizations are the Tigris and Euphrates river valley in Mesopotamia, the Indus River Valley in India, the Nile River valley in Africa, and the Huang He River valley in China (Stearns, Adas Et al.) Technology and the reorganisation of societal structures increased the economic viability of the now sedentary communities causing population sizes to increase dramatically. As the populations had vested interests in their land, ownership of property became more important which lead to increasingly complex societies where specialization, economic, political, and religious functions flourished. The increases in economic production also promoted migration and trade, which furthered the diffusion of the technologies and intellectual capital necessary for the spread of early social complexity. Horse domestication ( +- 4000 B.C.E.) and bronze metallurgy played a pivotal role in this and influenced the development of societies from China to Egypt. Advances in transportation technologies between approximately 3500 and 2000 B.C.E., such as "wheeled carts and wagons appeared in Mesopotamia" (Bentley 760), the construction of seaworthy sailing vessels by the Mesopotamians and Egyptians meant that although the population of the early complex society were sedentary, they did not develop exclusively in isolation. According to Bentley, "Mesopotamians and Egyptians traded with each other at least by 3500 B.C.E" (Bentley 760). The theory that the ideas and technology necessary for the formation of complex societies spreads through migration and trade is called the cultural diffusionism. The Olmec society in the Americas (1400 BCE to about 400 BCE) is a notable exception as in terms of this theory cultural diffusionism could not have been the sole driving force for the spread of complex societies. Middle Eastern complex societies began in about 3500 B.C.E. with the Mesopotamians and continued with the Sumerians. In around 1800 B.C.E., the Babylonian Empire came to supremacy uniting all of Mesopotamia. The importance of trade in the Babylonian Empire enabled them to create cultural zone that incorporated much of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. The early complex societies were susceptible to external threats from similar societies as well as other types of societies, such as the Indo-European who were nomadic herding societies. The Hittite invaders from Asia Minor for example overcame the Babylonians in about 1600 B.C.E. to establish their own empire. They were, in turn, displaced by a series of smaller kingdoms and control of Mesopotamia was hotly contested between 1200 B.C.E. and 900 B.C.E. The Hebrew and Phoenician societies, being smaller regional cultures, flourished during this period. In contrast to the rise and fall of societies through invasion and conquest some societies benefited from isolation. The Egyptian civilization in the North Africa, which developed along the Nile River after 3000 B.C.E., was isolated by the surrounding deserts and was consequently more stable than Mesopotamia. Egyptian culture was characterised by stability were few change in styles and beliefs occurred. After about 1150 B.C.E., there was a fairly steady decline. An analysis of similarities between early Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations reveals some of the primary determining factors necessary for the development of early complex societies. Both were dependent on the management and control of river systems. Both featured an elite class (kings, pharaohs, priests and landowning elite) ruling over a social underclass of peasants and slaves. Both societies advanced the sciences, particularly in mathematics and astronomy. They both exhibited Conservatism which may have been an internal driving force which sustained their longevity compared to later societies. Similarly an analysis of their differences reveals how the societies coped with their respective external dynamics through the creation of different societal processes and practices. For example the increased isolation of Egypt, being surrounded by a desert, meant that they were less likely to be attacked by rival societies. This may have caused political authority in Egypt to be more centralized unified political structures, while in Mesopotamia power was more delineated - imperial governmental powers did not have as much power over the semi-autonomous substructure of regional city-states. It is notable that political structures do not always develop in linear fashion: one stage after the next. For example Egypt moved directly to unify political structures and did not develop them through an initially adopting of city-states. Monumental architecture in Mesopotamian featured less than in Egypt, they did however develop an epic literary tradition (by 2000 B.C.E., the Sumerians recorded the oldest literary epic, the story of Gilgamesh) which Egypt lacked. This may be attributable to the greater stability in Egyptian society, which is reaffirmed by their religion which focused on the afterlife, providing a rationale for the development of monumental structures. Mesopotamia, given its more challenging environment and susceptibility to influence for other societies, both hostile and friendly, tended create more technological advances than did that of Egypt. Separate but derivative complex societies emerged on the borders of Egypt and Mesopotamia around 1000 B.C.E. The first known African state, besides Egypt, was the Kush. They emerged as an independent political unit after 1000 B.C.E. and by 730 B.C.E. were capable of conquering their Egyptian neighbours, had the Assyrians not invaded the Nile valley. The development of iron technology within Kushite society greatly enhanced their economic and military strength. Their political organization was based on a semi-divine ruler and had similarities to the Egyptian system. The Mediterranean Region was more amenable to the proliferation of societies it seems, both in terms of climate and proximity to trade routes. These early societies included the Hebrews, the Minoans and Phoenicians. Further discussion is not possible within the scope of this discussion; however it is interesting to note that most Phoenician cultural achievements were directly related to commerce. Unlike solely agriculturally based societies, the Phoenicians focussed on trade and established colonies throughout the Mediterranean. The early complex societies were later prone to invasions such as those by the Indo-Europeans which caused an abrupt end to many of these societies. The Indo-Europeans were hunters and herders from central Asia who introduced new technology such as the use of iron and more powerful weaponry. They also brought new political constitutions such as elective kingship. Many of the ideas, key technologies, basic science and mathematics, as well as religious, architectural traditions survived. The little archaeological evidence that exists about the early complex society in China suggests that it began in about 2,000 B.C.E. Early Chinese history is traditionally divided into three dynasties; the Hsia (2205-1766 B.C.E.), the Shang (1766-1050 B.C.E.), the Chou (ca. 1050-256BC). They were all located next to rivers. The Shang civilization was characterized by the king commanding political, economic, social, and religious power, the military use of horse-drawn chariots and bronze weapons, and well developed a complex system of writing. The China's geographical remoteness compared to other early complex societies, even Egypt, seems to have been a major factor in the longevity of their dynasties and the uniqueness of their social structure. An important feature was the secular nature of Chinese complex society: it "never produced a priestly class that had an important political role" (Brown). Perhaps this is what led to their supremacy in bureaucratic efficiency. A vast range of mountains set India apart from the rest of Asia (and particularly from East Asia). This set the sub-continent apart from Asia. A prosperous early complex society emerged along the Indus River by 2500 B.C.E. and supported several large cities, such as Harappa. Invasions by Indo-Europeans caused complete destruction of these societies and it is difficult to determine their influence on India's subsequent development. The study of early complex societies assists us in recognizing and understanding the factors behind the emergence of the complex societies we live in today. In Identifying the key developments such as and characteristics important in their inception, sustainability and demise we can extrapolate our analysis to modern societies and enhance our understanding of how society functions. Early modern societies provide us with a unique opportunity to see societies in their embryonic form and so afford us the opportunity to crystallise our understanding of the concept of what society is. It is evident from this discussion that although cause and effect inferences can be made, they need to be qualified as the path a society takes is determined by a multitude of external and internal forces, some of which are creative and therefore beyond the scope of prediction or explanation. Works Cited Bentley, Jerry H. "Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History." The American Historical Review. Vol.101. No. 3. (1996) : 749-770 American Historical Association Stearns, Adas, Et al."World Civilizations: The Global Experience: AP Edition." Pearson Education Inc. n.d. 14/10/2008. . Brown, Robert W. "The Rise and Spread of Civilization in India and China c. 2500 BC-AD 535." HISTORY 1140. World Civilizations to 1500. 09/04/2008. 14/10/2008. University of North Carolina at Pembroke. . Read More

 

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