Knowledge in American History - Term Paper Example

?Knowledge in American History Introduction One of the most important elements in the history of American culture and society is the gradual level offreedom and social equality attained by African Americans. Originally, forcefully brought over as slaves during the early years of the nation’s formation, African Americans virtually powered Southern agriculture through this enforced slavery on plantations. With the Emancipation Proclamation and the subsequent Civil Wars African Americans were freed from slavery; however their fight for equality had just begun. Over the next century and a half African Americans would experience tremendous resistance in this fight for equality, yet ultimately make slow but substantial progress. This essay follows and examines the historical progression of African Americans throughout five distinct periods in American history spanning from 1865 through the present era. Analysis Unit One In Unit One, historians have labeled the time period under examination the Reconstruction Era. Occurring after the Civil War, this era had tremendous implications for the lives and situations of African Americans. During the Reconstruction Era one of the primary questions that the newly reunited nation faced was in regards to the substantial slave population that had recently gained emancipation in the wake of the Civil War. The major ramifications of the Reconstruction as articulated in policy were articulated from approximately 1866 to 1871, with the right for freed African Americans to vote being among the most controversial and hotly debated topics. While before the enactment of the 13th Amendment that abolished slavery, the government had understood black individuals to constitute 3/5ths of an individual for voting and tax purposes; now African-Americans were granted full rights as citizens and began assuming these rights, some even holding public office (Raleigh, 2001). In addition to the 13th Amendment that abolished slavery, the 14th Amendment, passed in 1868, functioned to grant immediate citizenship to individuals that were born or naturalized in the United States. The 15th Amendment was passed in 1870 and functioned to prohibit laws being passed that restricted individuals to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude" (Raleigh, 2001). These amendments were pivotal in the history of African Americans and along with the 20th century Civil Rights movement constitute the most crucial periods in terms of freedom for African Americans. Even as the Constitution guaranteed rights to African Americans there was still a substantial amount of resistance, particularly at the hands of Southern states. This era saw the rise of the Ku Klux Klan as a means of oppressing African Americans. The Klan would engage in acts of terrorism, including house burnings and murder, as a means of intimidating African Americans. The Civil Rights Act of 1871 was put in place to restrict ethnic violence in response to the Ku Klux Klan movement (Stevens, 2001). During this period ‘black codes’ were also enacted as a means of attempting to oppress the recently freed African Americans. These acts were enacted by some Southern states as a means of continuing to restrict the rights of African Americans through controlling employment, their right to own firearms, or act as jurors in trials of white individuals. With the Civil Rights Act of 1866 these acts were repealed (Stevens, 2001). With the added control over employment and the plentiful agricultural land in the Southern regions, African Americans began engaging in sharecropping activities. Sharecropping occurred on land that was previously used as a plantation. In these instances, African Americans would rent small plots of land from the plantation owner to harvest their own crops. During this period there were also extraordinarily high illiteracy rates among African Americans, with a reported 70% illiteracy rate in the Southern states (Stevens, 2001). In response, this era also witnessed the emergence of some of the first schools for black children. While there were public schools built for African American children, these remained segregated throughout the nation. Generally, these schools were poorly funded and inferior to the White schools. In addition to the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and 1871, there was a Civil Rights Act of 1875 designed to ensure that African Americans were treated the same in public accommodations (Stevens, 2001). While good intentioned, this act was ultimately repealed as unconstitutional. Unit Two In Unit Two the time period under examination was from 1877 until 1920. This was an important period in American history and held a number of ramifications for the historical progression of African Americans in the United States. One pivotal issue of social relevance for African Americans during this period was the challenges they faced with the enactment of Jim Crow laws. The Jim Crow laws were enacted on both local and state levels as a means of oppressing African Americans through promoting segregation in public services. Jim Crow referred to a minstrel show performed by a white actor, but the term soon became a catch-all term for African Americans (Clark, 2009). Later the term referred to the segregation laws throughout the country. Despite Reconstruction policies that had attempted to increasingly grant civil rights to African Americans, the Southern states had gained political power and were able to counteract these measures with the Jim Crow laws. While the Jim Crows laws spanned a broad array of oppressive measures, perhaps the most pervasive were laws enacted to prevent African Americans from voting. The measures instituted required voters and candidates to pass literacy tests and pay poll taxes. As many African Americans lacked the proper formal education and financial means to meet these requirements, they functioned to greatly restrict voting by African Americans and poor whites. The period between 1890 and 1920 was referred to as the Progressive Era within American culture. In addition to Jim Crow laws, African Americans faced a number of challenges during this period (Clark, 2009). The Progressive Era, particularly in the Southern United States witnessed the gradual implementation and acceptance of segregationist practices in public places. With Jim Crow laws greatly limiting African American voting, the election of 1912 was very notable in terms of African American oppression. As Woodrow Wilson was elected and appointed Southern members to his cabinet, they moved to work towards segregating various government entities that had previously been integrated (Franklin, 2010). Even as there were considerable oppressive measures levied against African Americans, there was also an attempt to counteract this prejudice. One of the pivotal cases in these regards was the 1896 case Plessy versus Ferguson where segregationist policies were ultimately reinforced under the seminal ‘separate but equal ruling’. Unit Three In Unit Three the era between 1921 and 1945 was examined. While this was one of the most pivotal periods in American history, with the country experiencing both the Great Depression and World War II, there was minimal progression experienced in terms of African American civil rights. During this period the Jim Crow laws were still in effect, greatly segregating African Americans throughout many regions in the country. As a result of this lack of social change, the country underwent what would be termed the Great Migration. The Great Migration consisted of the migration of over five million African Americans from the Southern to Northern States to avoid oppressive social circumstances (Clark, 2009). This migration led to the cultural movement referred to as the Harlem Renaissance in New York. In addition to the Harlem Renaissance, African Americans made great progress through jazz music, with individuals such as Louis Armstrong gaining mainstream acceptance in the 1920s. While the country remained segregated throughout both World War I and World War II, African Americans served in segregated units in both wars. The famous Tuskegee Airmen made significant contribution to the war effort in World War II. Still, it was until the second half of the twentieth-century that African Americans would once again experience significant social progress. Unit Four Unit Four covered the period in American history from 1946 through 1976. More than perhaps any era in American history since the Emancipation Proclamation, this era witnessed the most substantial social progress for African Americans through the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States had been a long, primarily nonviolent struggle, mainly in the southern states, to bring about full civil rights and equality to all Americans. It was made up of many movements, though the term is often used to refer to the struggles faced between 1945 and 1970 in order to end discrimination against African-Americans and stop racial segregation. After the abolition of slavery in 1865 and with the Civil War over, it seemed that black Americans, in both the north and the south, could hope for a better future. But in fact their struggle had scarcely begun. Prior to the 1950s and 1960s, black Americans had endured separation in almost every area of life. Having separate schools, transportation, restaurants, parks, drinking fountains, public facilities, movie theaters and places of entertainment were all part of the white man’s’ attempt to achieve supremacy over blacks (Arsenault 2006). After the Brown decision in 1955 the Supreme Court ordered that all states should proceed to desegregate schools "with all deliberate speed" because having separate schools was proved unconstitutional under the fourteenth amendment. Segregationist states attacked the ruling, forming an organization to resist civil rights measures. This paved the way for southern states to delay the ending of Jim Crow. In December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white person. Word of her arrest spread quickly and provided NAACP leaders with an opportunity to challenge the bus segregation laws. Activists called for a one day strike against the bus line and spread the word to the Montgomery community. The success of this one day event inspired leaders to organize a long term bus boycott. Lasting for almost a year, the Montgomery bus boycott was one of the biggest successes for black Americans in the 1950s and 60s (Barnes 1983). In 1963, President Kennedy, in support of civil rights, had submitted a major civil rights bill to congress for approval and Martin Luther King wanted a campaign to place pressure on congress to pass it. In August King formed a huge march on Washington. The march was a great success with over 250 000 people marching from the Washington monument to the Lincoln Memorial. It was on this day that Martin Luther King gave the most famous and inspiring speech of his life. Kings powerful and passionate "I have a dream" speech was heard by millions of people worldwide. The dream of Martin Luther King was for racial harmony and equality, and he urged his followers to pursue this dream peacefully. The March on Washington boosted the Civil Rights Movement, but failed to eliminate opposition in congress. In November an untimely death occurred. President Kennedy had been assassinated while driving through the streets of Dallas, Texas. King was disheartened by the news, but relief was brought when succeeding president, Johnson, pledged his support for the civil rights bill. President Johnson used his political skills to persuade the southern congress to sign the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It left segregation in public places illegal and established an institution to fight discrimination in the workplace (Arsenault 2006). On the evening of April 3, King delivered another of his inspiring speeches saying, "I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you, but we as a people will get to the promised land" (Jones 1990). Within twenty-four hours Martin Luther King was dead. Assassinated as he stood alone on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel. His body was drawn through the streets of Atlanta in a simple farm cart followed by fifty thousand people. Martin Luther King lived for fewer than forty years, but in that short time he managed to transform the lives of black Americans. He had inspired a movement which gave black Americans not only civil rights, but also a new sense of self-esteem following the era of slavery and segregation. Unit Five Unit Five covered the period in American history from 1976 to the present era. While significant social progress had been made for African Americans through the Civil Rights Movement, it’s clear there was still social progress that needed to be made. One significant social issue that was achieved during this period was the furthered political advancement of African Americans into substantial offices. In 1989 Douglas Wilder became the first African American governor in the United States (Karenga, 2002). In 1992 Carol Moseley-Braun became the first African American woman Senator. In 2008 Barack Obama became the first African American president of the United States. Since 1970 there has also been a general increase nationwide of African Americans in political office (Karenga, 2002). In addition to these advancements, African Americans also made advancements in employment and college attendance through the implementation of affirmative action laws. Even with this progress, there remains a high rate of African Americans incarcerated and living in low income neighborhoods. Conclusion In conclusion, it’s clear that throughout the eras examined the United States experienced significant historical progress in regards to the social and cultural position of African Americans. Unit One examined the Reconstruction period and how African Americans fought to achieve rights and prosperity in the wake of the Civil War. Unit Two followed this progression as Southern states attempted to counteract black progress through enacting Jim Crow laws that would remain in place until the second half of the twentieth century. Unit Three explored the continued oppression of blacks through Jim Crow laws, as well as the Great Migration wherein great amounts of individuals migrated north to escape this oppression. Unit Four examined the substantial progress made during the Civil Rights Movement. Finally, Unit Five examined this progress as African Americans made gains in achieving political office and experiencing employment gains. References Arsenault, R. (2006) The Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford. Barnes, C. (1983) Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of the Southern World, Columbia University Press. Clark, D. (2009) African Americans: A Concise History. New York: Prentice Hall. Franklin, J. (2010) From Slavery to Freedom. McGraw-Hill. Jones, D. (1990). Politics of Progress: 20th Century Dialectic. Oxford University Press. Karenga, M. (2002) Introduction to Black Studies. University of Sankor. Stevens, B. (1999) The Plight of Many. New York: Columbia University Press. Raleigh, J. (2001) Reconstruction Era Politics. New York: Prentice Hall. Read More