What Part Did Religious Ideals Play In The Renaissance Voyages Of Columbus - Essay Example

What Part Did Religious Ideals Play In The Renaissance Voyages Of Columbus? Christopher Columbus embarked on his voyages of discovery during a time of great social and intellectual ferment in Europe. The era produced a rebirth of classical ideals together with a rethinking of the human condition, and major advances in scientific understanding and technical innovation. It also brought about a reconfiguration of power, in the political as well as the religious arena. In the face of mounting pressure from ‘Renaissance’ thinkers, the Papacy attempted to bring new luster to the Catholic faith through imbuing it with heightened piety, and European monarchs broke away from feudalism to form powerful alliances with the new and wealthy merchant class, whose members were eager for new trading routes, for access to spice markets and for the fabled wealth of the East. Each of these elements was significant for the voyages of discovery, but they were heightened by the missionary character of Christianity and the ideals urged upon its followers by the New Testament. To conquer lands, not just for their riches but also in search of converts, proved to be powerfully motivating.1 So alluring in fact that concerns over navigational knowledge paled into insignificance and ‘faith’ was substituted for sound maritime practices. Without the powerful lure of Christianizing the New World, their Catholic Majesties may perhaps never have sponsored the voyages. And without the conversionary zeal exhibited by Christopher Columbus, there may not have been four voyages. Thus the religious ideals of the Renaissance world, of the Spanish Monarchs of Columbus the man played a major role in bringing about the voyages. There can be no doubt about the religious commitment of Isabella of Castile. She ascended to the Spanish throne in 1474 and in the following years contributed greatly to strengthening the dominance of Catholicism in Europe. She was a woman who would be famed throughout history for her great political foresight but who would also plunge all of Christendom into a frenzy of religious ‘cleansing’, through her ‘devotional fanaticism’.2 Isabella was determined to reclaim ‘Christendom’ from the Moors, to which purpose she had committed Spain to quasi-religious wars in the Middle East and on Spanish soil for nearly two decades. She finally completed her Reconquista of Spain with Granada, which was retaken in 14923 and the mood of victory heightened into an atmosphere of pious euphoria throughout the Mediterranean. This alone may have swayed Isabella to finance the first of Columbus’ voyages, but her motives were far more complex and there were added motivators. The military campaigns of the past decades had depleted manpower and gold and more of both were urgently needed. With the expulsion of the Muslim Kingdom from the Iberian Peninsula, Isabella was also losing precious revenues4 and adding to these pressures was the knowledge that Portuguese sailors were at the forefront of new discoveries and had just mapped a route around the Horn of Africa in an attempt to reach India. This made it a matter of urgency for Isabella of Spain to find those ‘cities of spice and gold’ that Al-Idrisi, Marco Polo, Mandeville and others had written about5. She did, however, not lose sight of God’s work and the plans of exploration, for if and when it should occur, included detailed instructions on how any natives that were encountered were to be converted.6 When compared to the Spanish Monarch, the religious motivation of Columbus was far more complex. When he eventually approached the Spanish Monarchs for sponsorship for his first journey, he was indeed aware of the strength of Isabella’s religious commitment and it would appear that he made good use of it. Having already unsuccessfully offered his navigational expertise to the Portuguese King, who had entertained grave doubts about his capabilities, he held out to Isabella the lure of extending the ‘Kingdom of God’, while at the same time accumulating riches. He also included as a centerpiece of his submission, an ancient Biblical prophecy, in which he claimed that God made me the messenger of the new heaven and the new earth of which he spoke in the Apocalypse of St John after having spoken of it through the mouth of Isaiah; and he showed me the spot where to find it.7 This was to be the ‘New World’ that was to rise in the West to vanquish, once and for all, the power of Arabs in the East.8 Columbus prudently further strengthened his case by reminding Isabella of a century-old promise of sending a Christian delegation to the Great Khan. The commitment had been made by Marco Polo, whose writings had come to Columbus via Paolo Toscanelli9, and Columbus, as well as Luis the Santangel, Finance Minister to the Spanish Monarchs, believed that it would appeal to Isabella: About a prince who is called ‘Grand Khan’…how many times he and his predecessors have sent to Rome to ask for men learned in our Holy Faith in order that they might instruct him in it and how the Holy Father has never provided them, and thus so many people were lost, falling into idolatry and accepting false and harmful religions; and Your Highnesses, as Catholic Christians…thought of sending me, Christobal Colon, to the said regions of India…to see how their conversion to our Holy Faith might be undertaken.”10 In recent years, Columbus has been accused of having greatly amplified his own religious commitment in his presentation to Isabella. How much of this he believed himself is unclear, especially since there is considerable evidence that his actions did not always match the level of religiosity he was portraying. This can be seen in the way in which he was willing to switch political allegiances from the Fregoso faction to which his family belonged (aligned with Anjou) to their enemies, the Spanish. William and Carla Rahn Phillips also cite the fragment of a Letter from the Hispaniola, which Columbus wrote in 1495, and in which he portrays himself in a rather unfavorable light, boasting of having deceived his crew.11 There is also some evidence that he aspired to becoming a nobleman through his connection with the Spanish Crown.12 However, when understood in the light of the full text of the Prophesies, the former, worldlier attitude of the seafarer appears dwarfed by, and incompatible with, the extent to which he felt himself ‘driven’ by God. Thus he wrote to Isabella and Ferdinand in 1501: At this time I have seen and put in study to look into all the Scriptures, cosmography, histories, chronicles and philosophy and other arts, which our Lord opened to my understanding (I could sense His hand upon me), so that it became clear to me that it was feasible to navigate from here to the Indies; and He unlocked within me the determination to execute the idea. In only your Highnesses remained faith and constancy. Who doubts that this illumination was from the Holy Spirit? I attest that He (the Spirit), with marvelous rays of light, consoled me through the holy and sacred Scriptures . . . encouraging me to proceed, and, continually, without ceasing for a moment, they inflame me with a sense of great urgency”13 This seems to indicate that be believed in a clear calling from God, and the disparity between such fervor and his often callous personal behavior have presented scholars with a puzzle. Columbus was clearly a complex man and to the modern mind such religious ecstasy may be alien, but it would seem that within Columbus, both personae were able to co-exist. Once part of his worldly ambition was fulfilled, he was able to turn his attention to this other persona of self - the instrument of God. And yet, this was, as far as can be ascertained, not accompanied by any significant increase in outward piety, leading to recent suggestions that the tone of the journals and the prophecies point to an ultimately self-serving aim. This complex picture of Columbus, although not explicitly stated in any single one of the 19th and early 20th century works, is a distillation of the opinions of several scholars of history and roughly equates to the perspective taken up in Lynch14, controversial in so far as it conflicts with much of the recent and highly critical Columbus scholarship. For this reason it is perhaps opportune to here briefly outline the current controversies, before continuing a discussion of the role of religious ideals. The research here referred to is mainly that of a later date, when with the approaching quincentenary, American veneration of Columbus was questioned by scholars such as Sale, Zinn, Koning and others. But either or each of these approaches may be guilty of having “inserted present concerns into the study of the past”15as Lynch points out.16 Meticulously comparing primary sources with each other, as well as with recent Columbus studies, Lynch arrived at the conclusion that the man at the center of this controversy was neither a hero nor the all out black villain he had recently been painted to be.17 ‘Balance’ then needs to be the guiding principle when examining to what extent religious ideals propelled Columbus into the orbit of the bewildered natives and garrisons of greedy soldiers, with little interest beyond gold. That he made his religious ideals known to Isabella has already been established and, true to their calling as the ‘most Catholic Majesties’, Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain devoted considerable effort to the conversions they expected, giving at least the first journey the aura of a religious quest. Isabella’s instructions to Columbus were explicit. He was to convert as many natives as possible although her conversionary zeal did not extend to forced conversions. In the ‘18 Instructions of 1493’18, their Catholic Majesties instructed Columbus to do his utmost to bring about conversion of the ‘Indians’ and to behave towards them ‘very well and lovingly’ and as equals, but to severely punish anyone who mistreated the natives.19 How then did Columbus himself interpret these instructions? If Lynch is to be taken as the authority, Columbus was diligent in his conversionary efforts, as well as kind, gentle and appreciative, although his inability to control his men brought about some undesirable consequences.20 This, however, cannot not detract from his missionary zeal, which was also the criticism from sources closer to the 15th century, from Abbe Guillaume Reynal. Reynal, who wrote during the early 18th century, rather accused Columbus of the opposite, of having created “a spirit of fanaticism’, not only for religious conversion, but also for ‘making discoveries in search of some continents to invade, islands to ravage, souls to convert”21 All this indicates that there is reasonable evidence that Columbus attended to his missionary duties with some zeal and success. There are suggestions from the foregoing that problems encountered during the first and the second journey may soon have started to overshadow the crusading spirit, although conversions appear to have continued. Indeed Columbus, as well as his men, was guilty of ordering or perpetrating cruel acts, crimes against humanity and senseless murder, not to mention slavery. These events, however, are sufficiently documented elsewhere and are not of prime interest here. What is clear is that in the reality of the islands, and despite mounting pressure from dissatisfied soldiers, rebellious natives and demanding sovereigns, conversions continued, indicating that the drive to conquer the New World for God had indeed been strong, on part of the Sovereigns as well as Columbus. Religious ideals have thus been proven to be complex yet enduring. The crusading spirit, which had pervaded Europe for centuries, and that had sent seafarers off to unknown corners of the globe, had no doubt created the right climate for religious conquest, especially after the fall of Granada. The opportunity for an ever-greater Kingdom of God is highly likely to have been the major influence to persuade Isabella of Spain of the necessity for the voyages. And it must also have been enticing for her to have at the helm of the mission a man who believes to be a messenger from God and who promises to bring an ‘Army of God’ from the West to vanquish once and for all the Unbelievers. It is perhaps not surprising that such lofty goals could not be sustained for long, disintegrating under the weight of reality. For the natives, they dissolved into misery and suffering, for the soldiers into in-fighting, disease, moral collapse and ultimately disappointment at the scant rewards and for the sovereigns it would have meant dismay, with the mission but maybe also with the man of whom they had expected so much more. But perhaps the most severe disappointment would have been in store for Columbus, who, if his journals and the prophecies can be believed, had expected not only fabulous wealth but also the glory of God – neither of which appears to have been forthcoming. References: Primary Sources: Christopher Columbus, Prologue, in Merry E Wiesner, Julius R Ruff and William Bruce Wheeler, eds., “Columbus’ Journal Prologue and Letter”; “The Travels of Marco Polo”; & “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville”. Discovering the Western Past. A Look at the Evidence, Vol. I, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993. ---. The Prophesies, in Merry E Wiesner, Julius R Ruff and William Bruce Wheeler, eds., “Columbus’ Journal Prologue and Letter”; “The Travels of Marco Polo”; & “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville”. Discovering the Western Past. A Look at the Evidence, Vol.1 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993. Secondary Sources Thomas Benjamin. The Atlantic World: Europeans, Africans, Indians and their Shared History 1400-1900 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Bentley, Jerry H. and Herbert F. Ziegler. Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Rubin, Nancy. Isabella Of Castile: The First Renaissance Queen. Lincoln: ASJ Press, 2004. LaCapra, Dominick B. Rethinking Intellectual History: Texts, Contexts, Language. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983. Le Beau, Brian F. Christopher Columbus and the Matter of Religion. USA: Center for the Study of Religion and Society 4, No. 1 http://www.theinsider.org/reports/columbus-report/ (accessed April 12-14, 2011). McCranck, Lawrence J. eds. Discovery in the Archives of Spain and Portugal: Quincentenary Essays. 1492-1992. Binghamton: The Haworth Press, Inc., 1993. Lynch, Lawrence D. “Columbus in Myth and History”, in Lawrence J McCranck, eds. Discovery in the Archives of Spain and Portugal: Quincentenary Essays. 1492-1992 Binghamton. The Haworth Press, Inc., 1993. Morison, Samuel Eliot. Admiral of the Ocean Sea. Boston: Litte, Brown, 1942. Phillips, William D. and Carla Rahn Phillips. The Worlds of Christopher Columbus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Sale, Kirkpatrick. “The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy”. New York, N.Y.: Penguin Books. 1990. Bibliography: Primary Sources: Christopher Columbus, Prologue, in Merry E Wiesner, Julius R Ruff and William Bruce Wheeler, eds., “Columbus’ Journal Prologue and Letter”; “The Travels of Marco Polo”; & “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville”. Discovering the Western Past. A Look at the Evidence, Vol. I, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993. ---. The Prophesies, in Merry E Wiesner, Julius R Ruff and William Bruce Wheeler, eds., “Columbus’ Journal Prologue and Letter”; “The Travels of Marco Polo”; & “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville”. Discovering the Western Past. A Look at the Evidence, Vol. 1 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993. Secondary Sources Thomas Benjamin. The Atlantic World: Europeans, Africans, Indians and their Shared History 1400-1900 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Bentley, Jerry H. and Herbert F. Ziegler. Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Gerritsen, Anne and Anthony McFarlane. “Expanding Horizons” The European World, 1500- 1800: An Introduction to Early Modern History, edited by Beat Kümin. London: Rutledge, 2009. Rubin, Nancy. Isabella Of Castile: The First Renaissance Queen. Lincoln: ASJ Press, 2004. LaCapra, Dominick B. Rethinking Intellectual History: Texts, Contexts, Language. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983. Le Beau, Brian F. Christopher Columbus and the Matter of Religion. USA: Center for the Study of Religion and Society 4, No. 1 http://www.theinsider.org/reports/columbus-report/ (accessed April 12-14, 2011). McCranck, Lawrence J. eds. Discovery in the Archives of Spain and Portugal: Quincentenary Essays. 1492-1992. Binghamton: The Haworth Press, Inc., 1993. Lynch, Lawrence D. “Columbus in Myth and History”, in Lawrence J McCranck, eds. Discovery in the Archives of Spain and Portugal: Quincentenary Essays. 1492-1992 Binghamton. The Haworth Press, Inc., 1993. Morison, Samuel Eliot. Admiral of the Ocean Sea. Boston: Litte, Brown, 1942. Phillips, William D. and Carla Rahn Phillips. The Worlds of Christopher Columbus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Sale, Kirkpatrick. “The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy”. New York, N.Y.: Penguin Books. 1990. Sensenig, Peter (n.d.) "Marco Polo: An Inspiration to Christopher Columbus and the Age." Millersville University. http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/cwk/SENSEN01.CWK. (Accessed April 12- 14, 2011). Wiesner, Merry E, Julius R Ruff, and William Bruce Wheeler, eds. “Columbus’ Journal Prologue and Letter”; “The Travels of Marco Polo”; & “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville”. In Discovering the Western Past. A Look at the Evidence, Vol.1 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993. Zaccaria, Francesco. Participation and beliefs in popular religiosity: an empirical- theological exploration among Italian Catholics. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. 2003. Read More