Should We Widen the Agenda of Security Studies - Essay Example

The agenda of security studies By To what extent should we widen the agenda of security studies to include issues like the environment, population migration, food security, and the concerns of women (and other groups)? Should We Widen the Agenda of Security Studies? Introduction Security studies became an increasingly interesting and necessary subject for most governments during the Cold War. Its advent coinciding with the end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War had several implications. World War I and World War II had far reaching consequences on the populations of the participating countries that were not involved1. Women and children were the most affected because they did not participate in the war but they were the greatest casualties. A generation of young people were also lost from society thereby hampering the economic potential of these countries. Because of the far reaching consequences of such wars, it became increasingly necessary to select less violent means of settling conflict2. The rise of the Cold war however brought along with it a different set of crimes that defined the way in which this war was fought. The primary area of focus for security studies takes organized violence as its focus. It seeks to explore the various mechanisms by which individuals and aggregations of individuals use to undertake organized violent crime in an area. Once these mechanisms have been identified, security studies goes ahead to identify various ways in which the effects of such levels of violence can be mitigated. Accumulation of knowledge is a fundamental means of protecting oneself from organized violent crime. Knowing when criminals will attack and exactly where they will attack is vital knowledge in light of security issues. This knowledge can relate to the type of weapons that they will use their tactics, their use of humans as soft targets and the exact mechanisms by which they derive their motivation to undertake organized violent crime. Security studies also looks into greater fundamental aspects of organized crime at a national level3. The nature of weapons that a country has at its disposal is essential in determining the level of damage that could be caused by a security threat. The study if security studies would not be complete without evaluating the exact means by which war is caused. War is a delicate subject in the security systems of any country. Previously, it was entered into lightly as witnessed by the occurrence of World War I and World War II. However, with the numerous casualties that were experienced as a result of these wars, it became inhuman to the common man for these wars to be supported. In recent times, security studies has faced increasing pressure to investigate other areas of security that had not been the considered a security concern. Issues like the environment, population migration, food security, and the concerns of women are some aspects of society that were previously not linked to aspects of security. However, significant links are being established between these issues and security making it prudent for security studies to investigate their exact effects on the security situation in the country. States are inherently sociable and geared towards interacting with one another. They cannot maintain themselves by operating as a single entity. They must co-operate with other states in aspects of governance and resources among others. The results of such interactions allows for implications that the threat of security can never be reduced to zero. There will always be plenty of opportunities presenting themselves as potential security threats in any society. As such, security studies needs to focus on factors that affect the aggregation of states and the individual aspects that allow them to operate as functional units. This has led to the rise of contemporary security studies that have widened the agenda of security issues. International Security International security has often been used to refer to a common understanding that international communities have to ensure the mutual safety and survival of their people. It involved the use of military personnel to physically ensure that there was peace along the borders. This was implemented alongside other formal measures such as diplomatic agreements in the form of treaties and conventions. After the World War II, the main focus of international security was the maintenance of human security, safeguarding the overall security and survival of its citizens. As a result, the role of security rested squarely on the state because it was perceived that if the state was able to maintain human security of its citizens then they were inherently safe. However, after the Cold War, it was evident that security had taken a different turn. Focus had shifted from the main issue of human security to other more subtle areas such as environment, food, climate, energy supplies and overall economics. Small uprisings were witnessed all over the world in the quest for fulfilment of basic human rights such as food security. In less than a decade, the scope of international security had expanded to cover almost everything in the world. Each aspect of life was considered a security issue thereby expanding the scope of security studies to understand how these interconnected issues could lead to security threats in the country. Human Security: Development of terrorism over the past 50 years. Terrorism is ever evolving; while superficially it remains a calculated use of unlawful violence to bring fear upon people and governments, its resources, targets and means are evolving4. Over the past 50 years, terrorism has evolved from smaller targets to large targets that are motivated by political aim5. The average terrorist has evolved from being a political window breaker, to a mass murder. Their weapons of destruction have also evolved from the ordinary stone to weapons of mass destruction involving the use of tear gas and bombs. Their participation has become more engaging from the periods of mass demonstrations to the periods of suicide bombers willing to give up their lives to further their political ambition. It can be implied that these evolutions have occurred because governments have allowed citizens to take up more arms. By ignoring a demonstration, citizens have been politically motivated to resort to other violent measures such as bombs to ensure they get their message across. The changes in the environments of countries and governments are increasingly being blamed for the increase in the level of terrorism. Over the past 50 years, there have been changes in the social, political, environmental, technological, cultural, physical, psychological and spiritual elements of every government. Some of these changes have been implicated in the rise in levels of terrorism with each technique being used, an improvement of the previous techniques used by others. The focus of security studies has been on terrorist threats and attacks that have been levelled against innocent civilians. This is because society has often perceived security to involve terrorist organizations that were a threat to national security. The United States is known to have focussed it security interventions on shutting down AlQaeda which was a security threat to the country’s security6. Afghanistan is an example of a country that has suffered and presented a security challenge for many international security bodies all over the world. The war in Afghanistan started as part of the Cold War where they were supported by the Soviet Union. The war that lasted almost a decade resulted in millions of Afghans fleeing their country mostly to Pakistan. Several thousand Afghan civilians were killed in the process till the end of the war in 1989. The war left the country in ruins following the exit of the Soviet Union troops from the area. With the exit of these troops, the country fell into the hands of the Taliban which was a rebel sect which had various ideals with which it felt the country should be governed. It presented a security threat to the Afghanistan government making the country difficult to govern for a period of time7. This period realized further exit of people from the country to the neighbouring Pakistan. Following the attacks in September 11, 2001 the United States sent its troops to Afghanistan to fight terror threats that were posed by the Taliban8. AlQaeda, a terrorist group which had been held accountable for the terrorist attack on United States had its leader in Afghanistan. Finding the security threat and eliminating it was the main objective for the United States government at the time. However, their participation in this war has opened them up to a host of other terrorist activities both within and outside their own country9. Other issues have come up that relate to international security that needs to be considered for the concept of safety to be truly achieved. Some of these include environment, climate, population migration, food security and women’s role in security in the state. Focus has shifted from setting up interventions that are meant to quell the threat of terrorism and terrorist groups to measures aimed at understanding the dynamics of the security of a nation. Environmental Security This aspect of security refers to the threats posed by environmental factors to the security of individuals, societies and the world in general10. It is difficult to define the boundaries of an environment. Often, they cut across borders making it likely to be a potential source of conflict between the nations in which it traverses. Several resources are obtained from the environment and for many; it has become a necessary source of food and employment. As such, nations have been known to utilize these resources at will. However, those resources that cut across borders such as lakes, oceans and rivers need to be shared among several countries. Pasture and grazing land are often communally owned making its use subject to approval by members of these communities. Resources have been known to be a major source of conflict and have led to wars that have had far reaching consequences on these communities. Pastoralist communities in areas of Kenya have fought over land resources for grazing their animals. These fights have resulted in loss of livestock resources and even death leading to deep seated animosity between members of these two communities. International communities frequenting such areas in the quest of tourism have found themselves caught up in such ethnic conflicts making it a security risk. Sharing water resources has also led to conflict whereby communities utilize the water for various uses. Some use it for fishing, others irrigation and others for domestic use. Ethnic tension is realised in the case of Lake Victoria which caused tension between Uganda and Kenya when they could not agree on the fishing rights of an Island located in the lake. Chile and Peru have an existing conflict about their maritime borders on the use of the waters for fishing11. Military interventions in an area have often been the source of environmental challenges. Various items of weaponry utilized during war are often left behind once the war is over. This includes the gun cartridges, bombs, explosives and land mines that end up damaging the environment and the people. Land mines are some of the worst cases of environmental poisoning that have resulted from wars. These present a security challenge because innocent civilians end up realizing the consequences of the war long after it is over. Understanding these environmental threats will help nations respond to environmentally caused conflicts by placing necessary interventions. Along with these interventions will come efforts to repair existing military damage and put measures in place to ensure that future military interventions do not damage the environment. Climate Change Climate change also presents a threat to the security of a nation. Changes to the climate traverse various aspects of security including environmental security, health security and food security12. Changes in climate result in environmental changes which in turn affect the production of food. Lack of food or its inadequate supply may cripple the health sector system by leading to the development of non-infectious diseases such as malnutrition. Climate change is caused by a variety of factors including cutting down of trees, using air conditioners and other environmentally damaging aerosols. These activities should be reduced or completely stopped because of their effects on the environment. The most recent occurrence is the recession of polar ice caps that denote how fast global warming is taking place. This phenomenon is the cause of various floods, typhoons and earthquakes that have led to landslides and the eventual loss of lives in many countries. Security aims to protect its citizens from unnecessary loss of life. As such, climate change presents a necessary challenge to the security system and should be evaluated in security studies. The amount of resources that are used to assist people who have been affected by the effects of climate change is also expensive for a nation. It is much better to reduce or completely eliminate the occurrence of global warming by reducing the activities that actually cause it. However, not all individuals and companies will comply with regulations on tree cutting and product manufacturing. Some greedy manufacturers will still produce these dangerous goods making it imperative to include law enforcement agencies in the matter. Understanding how climate change affects the environment and by extension security will assist policy makers to put the necessary interventions in place to reduce and eventually eliminate the effects of climate change. Population migration People migrate to other countries for various reasons. Some of the most common include study, visit, business activities and war. For whichever reason, people from various nationalities, ethnic background and religion cross into new frontiers every day. These people present a constant security threat to the country they are moving into. This is because the nature of activities they are engaged in cannot often be properly ascertained. They have often been the subject of debate in the threats of terrorism witnessed all over the world. Population migration also takes place as a result of war. Women and children from countries that are afflicted by civil war and ethnic clashes are often the most affected and the subject of humanitarian interventions. They have often been rescued and relocated to other neighbouring countries all over the world. Their presence in those countries has however been the subject of various security debates in those countries. Population migration of people from war presents a major challenge because these people are often offered refugee status and even citizenship13. Some of these refugees have however been engaged in acts of theft and even terrorism leading to insecurity in the host country. A clash of ideologies about aspects such as culture and religion has prompted some of these refugees to take action against the host countries resulting in loss of lives of innocent civilians. Some of the immigrants may also provide refuge for foreign terrorists who seek to further their political ambitions by engaging in acts of terrorism. Crime syndicates may also find refuge and international financing from immigrants in these host countries. Further complicating the situation are cases of intermarriage where immigrants gain citizenship through marriage to host citizens. Population migration thus presents a delicate situation because apart from the aspects of human rights that are involved, security has been carefully woven into it. Retaliatory acts such as deportation and revocation of citizenship by these host countries has often been met by sharp criticism. In order to maintain the security of the state, security studies must incorporate the dynamic aspects of population migration so as do deal effectively with such situations. Food security According to the United Nations, people should have both physical and economic access to basic food at all times in order to be categorized as food secure14. At times, it is not that food is unavailable however, the distribution mechanisms and inadequate purchasing power of citizens often places significant challenges on the achievement of the concept of food security. During the war, food security was a major issue and may have been implicated in the deaths of many women and children. However, it was not considered a threat to the security of the state because at the time, food security was seen more as a consequence of the war that the countries were fighting. However, after the war as nations resorted to more civilized ways of settling their disputes, food security became an issue. Inadequate distribution mechanisms were witnessed due to the lack of roads and other transport mechanisms to people in various areas of the country. Issues of the rights of citizens came up because while some people had adequate access to food, others did not have sufficient infrastructure in place to allow them such access. The role of provision of social services such as construction of roads and transportation systems had been left to the government. Hence dissatisfaction was felt because society did not understand why they would equally pay taxes while services were only provided for a few in society. Such inequalities lead to uprisings and demonstrations that if left unattended to would have led to complete riots among other acts of terrorism. Economic factors also affect food security when citizens do not have enough money to purchase food. In recent years, there have been demonstrations and protests resulting from the presence of inflation in various countries. These demonstrations if left unattended have spiralled into acts of terrorism and eventually wars whose consequences run deep in society. Food security is a vital aspect of security studies that must be investigated carefully because of its subtle approach. It may often seem like a simple issue however the resulting consequences on the state of security of a country have got dire effects. State officials, heads of state and entire governments have been overthrown from power simply because of issues relating to food security. Food security has been the subject of several humanitarian interventions all over the world. However, relating with nations that have gone to war places a strain on the financial resources of the intervening country. In addition, staff and other citizens place themselves at risk for intervening in such wars because it can be perceived that they are supporting one side in the war. There have even been cases where humanitarian staff are kidnapped in the various countries in which they have gone to distribute food. This presents a threat to national security when a country’s military has to intervene in such situations in order to free its citizens. Food security thus has to be carefully incorporated into security studies because of the dynamic ways in which it can affect the state of security of a nation. Health security According to recent reports, the threats of terrorism are evolving towards the dimensions of the health of a nation. It has been postulated that because of the growing research being done into bombs and other known physical weapons, terrorists will soon adopt the use of bio-threats. Bio-terrorism as it will possibly be referred to; will involve the infection of innocent populations with deadly viruses. Viruses often do not have ready cures and antidotes must be developed soon after their formation. This threat will present one of the most deadly threats to the health security of a country. Every society seeks to ensure that its public health department can predict the arrival and spread of communicable diseases in the county. Predicting the arrival of a disease and the likely routes it will take to spread is difficult. Facilities for developing mass vaccines in the event of a bio-threat is a dream that is yet to be achieved. It is because of this that nations need to seek careful measures to understand the risk to security that health could pose. Governments are yet to formulate policies of how they will deal with such security threats should they occur. The limited information that is available on such bio-threats is confined to only certain sections of the World Health Organization making it impossible to disseminate to other areas. Because of the presence of such situations, governments would face numerous challenges and would likely fail should the threat of bio-terrorism be made real. The handling of the 2001 anthrax attacks depicted the United States’ government’s unpreparedness to handle such a crisis. The Ebola Virus in Africa is still present despite numerous interventions to manage its spread. Infectious disease thus still present a challenge to governments and should be investigated further to ensure readiness of management should they occur. Security studies should also seek to understand the occurrence and spread of infectious diseases because they can lead to the death of innocent civilians whom they are sworn to protect. Non-infectious diseases also present a challenge to health security in a country. Diseases such as malnutrition often present a health security risk for children in developing countries. Diseases of the circulatory system among other lifestyle diseases also present a security risk for young adults in developed countries. In availability of sufficient health services, clean food and water, basic necessities, healthy food and education are among some of the causes for the rampant spread of non-infectious disease in an area. The result is a population that is unable to work to support the coming generations presenting a risk to the continuity of generations. Malnutrition has various trickling effects that can cripple the future of a nation. Diseases of the circulatory system place a greater burden on the healthcare system of a country making it impossible to achieve sufficient development. Even though the risks that health places on the security system of a country may be indirect, they are viable enough to produce enumerable effects on the country. It is because of this that they should be made part of security studies so as to mitigate their effects long before time. The concerns of women Women are elemental to the survival of a nation through the continuity of generations15. They are often the ones most affect when a security situation arises in the case of wars and civil unrest. They often take care of children and are forced to look for food and shelter during such unrest. It is because of these vulnerable groups that countries saw it fit to reduce and eventually eliminate their engagement in massive wars such as World War I and II. According to Hillary Clinton in her doctrine, women should be provided with freedom to participate in various social and economic functions in order to ensure liberation of societies. In various parts of the world, women are oppressed and face various adversities. Their freedoms are curtailed thereby confining them to certain various sections in society. Their roles are watered down to those of child bearing and taking care of the family. Other more demanding roles such as driving vehicles and seeking formal employment have been kept out of their reach. Various states in Africa and the Middle East have been facing challenges with elevating the rights of women. However, an increasing number are nowadays recognizing the rights of women as seen in Egypt and Pakistan. Liberation of women by elevating their rights often means a state is able to elevate the rights of its other members. Women’s rights have been placed at the fore front of many human rights and their realization by a country signifies a certain level of democracy. No country should leave half of its members behind in the achievement of development. Gender equality is essential to the prosperity of a country thereby allowing them to achieve peace and stability. Women are elemental in the development of a nation. They are able to engage in economic activities that can increase value in a community. Their contribution to child care is elemental in the success of the nation because they define the way children grow up. Poor maternal care has been linked to an increase in the rate of crime among individuals in their teenage years. Hence their role in development of individuals and of a nation is elemental. In order to support development, women have to be given a chance to participate in economic development. They have to be allowed to actively take up jobs and participate in policy formulation. In addition, they have to be provided with funds that will allow them to engage in economic investment. It is only in this way that they can participate in economic investment. Women in their nature are peace loving and have lower tendencies for aggression as compared to men. Their inclusion into various international security agencies is essential because of their capabilities to engage in peaceful negotiations. They are more inclined towards interventions that promote peace and will not rush into situations that provoke war. It is unlikely that they would support the engagement of their countries in war regardless of the situations that arise. As such, their presence in aspects of security and policy formulation is essential to ensure countries are able to peacefully co-exist. It is evident that war and combat were domains that were previously reserved for men. That era realized some of the greatest wars in the history of the world. However, with increased participation of women in international security, the nature and extent of these wars have been reduced. They can be seen joining up to the highest ranks of military leadership and have risen to become prime ministers and head of nations, a fete that was previously not thought possible. Failure to support the rights of women has been met with cases of civil unrest. This has been in the form of demonstrations that were aimed at making the government improve the rights of women. Constitutions require at least 25% representation of women in parliament. However, many governments are yet to achieve these proportions because few women take part in politics. The threat to women is still high as they face violent crimes such as rape and assault from their male counterparts. Their perception as the weaker sex due to their physical make up has made them vulnerable to various crimes perpetuated by men. Because the role of any security system is to protect its citizen, women are elemental to the security of the nation. They need to be protected notwithstanding their role in international security. Security studies would not be complete without an in-depth look into the role of women in security. Conclusion It is clear that the issue of security is multidimensional, dynamic and unique. It has been realized that implementing security measures should shift from the conventional aspects of identifying and mitigating the activities of terrorism groups. By simply focussing on acts of terrorism, security agencies fail to understand the bigger picture. It is evident that various other factors have got indirect implications on the security of a nation. A clear understanding of such issues as environment, health, food security and women is essential in order to approach security from a holistic perspective. Bibliography Baldwin, D. The Concept of Security. 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