The History of Political Party Systems since Independence of the US - Essay Example

? Introduction America is the largest economy I the world and comprises of fifty s and one district (District of Columbia). It was colonized by the British but managed to free itself and the thirteen colonies declared themselves independent in the year 1776. It is one of the states with the most diverse population from different racial and ethnic backgrounds especially immigrants and slaves from Africa, Europe, and Asia not forgetting the Native Americans. The values enshrined in the constitution have been used to guide the actions of American parties since independence. The constitution recognizes that human beings are equal and have inalienable rights. As such, most political parties in the US fight for equalitarian ideals whenever another party veers off the ideals set by the constitution; for example, the democrats often advocate for strong national government and taking care of the interests of the wealthy for economic progress forgetting social equality and on the other hand, republicans worked so hard to maintain equality (Reichley, 2000 p. 30-36).There has been many political parties pursuing different interests since independence ranging from nativism, anti-catholism, slavery, taxation, and the national bank but the dominant parties in modern USA are the democratic and republican parties. The aim of this paper is to trace the history of political party systems since independence; their ideals, nominations and elections, social groupings, major fault lines, and the changes from each era to another. To answer this question, the paper will be divided into five sections. The first section will cover the first party system during the period 1787-1828. Then, the second party system from 1828-1854. Thirdly, third party system period from 1854 to 1896. Followed by the fourth party system 1896-1932 and lastly, fifth party system which covers the period from 1932 to 1960s. 1787-1800 Though America declared independence in 1776, the constitution was signed in the year 1787. By then there were no political parties as was the norm in other countries of the world. It was a federal constitution and as such presidents, House of Representatives and congress were elected on a federal ticket until the 1790s when political parties were invented. The first Electoral College was constituted in 1789 and George Washington from Virginia State was elected as the president with 69 votes (Reichley, 2000 p. 29). His vice president was John Adams of Massachusetts. After assuming office, Washington chose Thomas Jefferson as the secretary of state and Hamilton as secretary of treasury. These two posts were very vital in the administration of the state thus the holders of these offices were close confidants of the president. Hamilton as the secretary of treasury was involved in making policies on development and as such he embarked on an ambitious economic program of ensuring the national state remained dominant or in control. The program involved assuming national and state debts by the federal government, establishing a national bank and levying taxes especially on whiskey (Reichley, 2000 p. 30). His philosophy was the inclusion of business interests as part of ensuring rapid economic growth in the belief that the support for commerce and manufacturing was for the benefit of all citizens. However, some individuals thought that he was reverting to the monarchical era and criticized him for placing less value on social equality which is one of the principles of the constitution. Though he conceived that there may be an abuse of power if too much power is placed on national government, he also believed that the civil society could remedy the situation (P. 30). The national bank was of such importance that different factions kept arguing about whether it should exist or not. Some individuals mostly republicans were also opposed to the idea of the federal government assuming debts and making workers pay high taxes to recover such debts. The only people who profited from such a move were speculators who had expected high prices in future. Another controversial issue during this period was the government dealings with businessmen and manufacturers. As for Hamilton, the very poor in the society were of no use to state prosperity which was much needed that time. Though Jefferson gave the administration support in forming a strong national government according to Reichley (2000 p. 31) he was not contented with the idea and began to oppose if his association with James Madison, Robert Livingstone, George Clinton and Aaron Burr which was to later shape politics is anything to go by. These characters invented new ways of conducting campaigns by involving the press to articulate issues. The federalists followed suit and established the Gazette of US to advocate government programs such as the national bank. The opponents established the National gazette to counter the influence of the government gazette and spoke much against the national bank, stockholders and speculators (p. 32). As the leader of opposition, Madison called for equality for all rather than accumulation of riches by a few. Two parties emerged in this period just before the 1794 elections. The federalists believed in control of the people through money, emoluments and military force since they are not capable of governing themselves. On the other hand, republicans or anti-federalists believed in democracy, that is, representation of the interests of the masses as opposed to a few. Another notable event that shaped the politics of this period was the French revolution which culminated in a war between the France and Britain. The then president Washington was of the view that America should not intervene and was supported by Jefferson. America thus remained neutral. However, some Americans were not pleased with that decision and supported the French. They thus stated forming clubs or organizations which they regarded as democratic societies which amounted to 35 by end of 1794 (p.36). In 1795 the republicans or anti-federalists were the majority party and the federalists were regarded as democrats. In the same period, Jefferson and Hamilton resigned from Washington’s administration and accused him of desserting republican principles of equality. Those who supported Hamilton believed in adopting the federal constitution thus referred themselves as federalists. Those who supported Jefferson were referred as democratic-republicans. When Electoral College voted in 1796, Adams a federalist was elected president followed by Jefferson a republican who became the vice president. A change in the electoral process was also experienced during this period. Parties wanted a simple way to win elections and this was to change how elections were held. Most states chose the president through the congressional districts. Virginia State turned to statewide system while Massachusetts reverted to the legislature. New York on the other hand, wanted to change choosing electors by legislature to the district but the motion was defeated hence the legislature was maintained (Reichley, 2000 p. 42). The issue surrounding 1800 elections has to do with morality and development. Religion was of most importance in deciding which presidential candidate to support or the party to affiliate with. The federalists had huge support from Congregationalists who feared disestablishment especially as a result of the Great Awakening. States such as Connecticut, New Hampshire and Massachusetts thus supported federalists (Adams). The evangelicals on the other hand supported Jefferson who was a republican and so were the Baptists and methods in rural areas. They were not ready to pay taxes to finance a state religion hence the support from evangelicals. In the 1800 elections, Jefferson won with 73 electoral votes against Adam’s 65 thus beginning the era of Jeffersons (Reichley, 2000 pp. 43-45). 1800-1828 This was an era for the Jeffersonians. He appointed James Madison as secretary of state and Gallatin as secretary of treasury. Jefferson maintained some of the policies and structures prevalent during Adams tenure in office with little modifications. The democratic-republicans were opposed to use of military force thus their first task was to reduce budgetary spending on defence. The national debt was also reduced from $83m in 1800 to $27.5m by 1812 while the national bank’s charter was allowed to expire in 1811 though a new bank was established in 1816 (Reichley, 2000 p. 51). The major point of departure from federalists’ administration was emphasis on social equality by republicans. Contrary to federalists who praised commerce and speculation, democratic-republicans believed in the agrarian economy to bring equality among citizens. Small farmers were viewed as the future for Americans as opposed to monied interests. They believed in democracy which meant freedom and equality for all through state rights ad advocated for a small government (pp. 52-55). The fault with this administration was that it failed to eliminate slavery which dominant in US yet they advocated for equality. This was viewed by many as hypocrisy and could affect the party’s popularity. Furthermore, the key players such as Madison, Gallatin, Clinton, Burr, Monroe and Taylor had different interests, attitudes and ambitions which affected party unity. The party was strongest in the south and west and like in the previous era, only white men with property could be allowed to vote. Hamilton a federalist tried to form a Christian constitutional society to advocate for their cause but died before he could gain support for federalists. There was increased church involvement in politics during this period than previous period. There was a change in electoral process following the constitutional crisis experienced in 1800; a tie between two candidates. The twelve amendments thus allowed for president and his vice to be elected separately and if none achieves majority, president to be chosen from top three candidates. Jefferson won in the 1804 elections. Also in 1808 Madison from the same party won the presidency with George Clinton as vice president. It was an era for the republicans. Madison was reelected in 1812 against DeWitt by getting the majority votes: Madison 128 and DeWitt 89. The defeat of the federalists was due top their opposition to the war of 1812 which was won by Americans. James Monroe also a democratic-republican was elected in 1817 and 1820 respectively since the federal party had already collapsed. In 1820, Monroe garnered all votes except one (Reichley, 2000 p. 59-65). Adam was chosen as secretary of state, Calhoun war and William Crawford in the treasury. There was a shift in 1828. In 1824, the race was between four democratic-republicans: Jackson, Crawford, Clay and Adam. Adam who had been elected president in 1824 was now fighting it out with Andrew Jackson. The Jeffersonians who had voted for Crawford in 1824 now supported Jackson while former supporters of Jackson who were federalists now shifted support to Adam. In the end, Jackson was elected president. The second awakening brought on board more evangelicals to republican side thus gaining strength (Reichley, 2000 p. 66). However, there was split of republicans into national republicans (those in support of Quincy Adams) and democratic-republicans who were Jacksonians and were opposed to strong national government in favor of equalitarian ideals. After the 1828 elections they changed their name to democrats which later became the Democratic Party in 1840s. They were for a small government, no national banks, or trade protections. 1828-1860 Two parties dominant were the national republicans and the democrats. It was also the period of formation of mass parties such as the anti-masons, the Whigs, libertans, the know-nothing and free soil party (Reichley, 2000). Jacksonian democrats were the descendants of Jeffersonian republicans. As a matter of fact, Jefferson died in 1826 but not before endorsing Jackson for presidency. Jackson bent on increasing patronage thorough an expanded public payroll hence gain popularity. Strong state machines were formed which were ends in themselves and not the means; for example, the Van Buren’s ‘Regency’ in New York (p. 73).They did not like the anti-party ideology but acknowledge the usefulness of having an opposition. Competition to them was healthy in checking abuse of power. The Anti-Masonic party was formed by those who opposed Jackson in New York and England. They were against the role of freemasons in government (p. 77).In 1831 they won the governorship seat but still it was not a good base for formation of a national party. Jackson won Presidency in 1832. Another party called the Whig party was organized by opposers of Jackson democrat ideals. The Whig theorists argued that “the executive role was to act as administrators of carrying out the will of legislative branch” (Reichley, 2000 p. 79). They supported social, economic and moral reforms while rejecting Jackson’s autocratic rule. They provided four candidates in the 1836 elections but were defeated by Martin Van Buren a democrat. However, in 1840 and 1848 they won the presidency but as fate would have it, there presidents (Harry Harrison and Taylor) died barely one year in office. The Whig camp developed faults and broke into American party and Creole. American party became Whigs while Creoles became democrats (P. 80). Whigs got support from federalist north, from those who believed in Hamilton’s economic programs. They were for high tariffs, establishment of third bank when Biddle’s bank charter expires and increased federal expenses and also added cultural and moral dimensions. However, the growth was to be gradual rather than rapid to avoid destabilization of economy. One notable progress in this period was increase in voter turnout from 27% in 1824 to 80% in 1840 but it also meant increased vote fraud (p. 81). The slavery issue during this time separated the Whig party especially after the 1848 democratic national convention. Nativism and anti-Catholicism were also issues arising in 1850s. 90% of Catholics supported the democrats especially after the 1840s legislation on immigration (P. 93). The free soil party was organized by those who opposed expansion of slavery into western territories especially after the Kansas-Nebraska bill of 1854 which was to put western territories under slavery. The free soilers and Whigs joined forces in 1954 to form the Republican Party and oppose expansion of slavery. In 1854, the Know-Nothing later named the American party was formed in opposition to immigration of Catholics. The Democratic Party that supported expansion of slavery was dominant in the south by 1856. 1860-1896 This period mostly dealt with the slavery issue which was left unsolved by Whigs and democrats. The democrats could not agree on the issue of slavery thus they fielded separate candidates in the North and South allowing the republicans easy victory. Some Whigs and Know-nothings also sponsored a candidate in 1860 under the constitutional union vowing to unite the union. However, it was Abraham Lincoln of the Republican Party that got majority votes. Some southern states wanted to secede from the union but Lincoln used military force to hold the union together leading to civil war and a period for reconstruction thereafter. The Republicans sought to end slavery, support industrial development, distribution of western public lands to small farmers, free public education and moral reform although they had no support in the south (Reichley, 2000 p. 93). Some democratic states such as New York and Pennsylvania shifted to Republican side. Lincoln was reelected in 1864. In 1872 republicans split over reconstruction and the liberal Republican Party formed. They united with democrats in nominating Horace Greeley but it is Ulysses Grant a Republican who won the elections just like in 1868. The Democratic Party was dominant in the south. This is due to prevention of voting of the African Americans in the south despite all men acquiring voting rights. Their support from North came from farmers, workers and catholic immigrants most of whom had opposed the civil war (p.94). They were completely opposed to prohibition of slavery as it provided labor for plantations especially in the south. In the 1896 elections the Democratic Party split into democrats and national democrats giving way for a republican candidate to win. 1896-1932 The era of Republican dominance had begun with the election of a Republican in 1896. This dominance lasted for 36 years. The same voting blocs were maintained with Republicans getting support in the north and democrats in the south. However, a progressive movement supported by individuals from both sides sought for reforms especially in ways of promoting business. It was a period that saw the First World War in 1914 prompting the US to enter global politics. One notable issue that remained unsolved was the African American prohibition to vote in the south (p. 103). It was every man and woman of 21 years and above to vote since 1920 but the blacks were still being prevented from voting so as not to gain the power needed to fight for their rights. Their prowess had been observed during the world war and the whites feared them. The Democratic Party was mostly supported by immigrants in the north who were for slavery. The Republican Party on the other hand was a bit progressive but still maintained its strong nationality and opposition for slavery expansion. It was also opposed to entry of America in the war and adopted the isolationist policy after the war. It also acquired support from women of voting age. Some of the parties formed during this period include the socialist party formed in 1901. It comprised of social reformers, trade unionists, immigrant communities, populist farmers and other small parties. In 1912 elections, Theodore Roosevelt was against the republican candidate as he viewed him as supporting business interests. Taft had won elections in 1908 but lost to a democrat Woodrow Wilson after Roosevelt supported Woodrow. Woodrow also won elections in 1916. However, in 1920 the victory returned to the republicans. (pp. 120-122).) The great depression in the 1930s led to the downfall of the Republican Party and the rise to power of the Democratic Party under Franklin Roosevelt in 1832. He was supported by African Americans, businessmen, and industrial workers. It was referred as a ‘New Deal.’ 1932-1960s Franklin Roosevelt’s reign lasted for four terms, that is, until 1944. However, opposition came from populists who believed the ‘new deal’ was unachievable. They formed the union party in 1935 to split democrats’ votes but in the end Roosevelt won in 1936 elections. In 1952 and 1956 a republican (Dwight Elsenhenhower) was elected as president but in 1960 a democrat John F. Kennedy captured the presidency. Lyndon Johnson’s policies after succeeding Kennedy after his death in 1963 and reelection in 1964 angered southerners who shifted their vote to a republican Richard Nixon in 1968. He was rejected for his civil rights legislations and desegregation by federal government. The civil rights enforced black rights to vote. The New Deal however, broke up in 1960s as a result of civil rights movement and social turmoil. Today the democratic and republican parties dominate US politics though they are more ideologically divided. Reference Reichley, J. A (2000) The Life of Parties: A History of American Political Parties. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. Read More