History of Medicine and Science - Essay Example

Discuss the Scientific Revolution in the 16th- 17th centuries. How was it a change from the past? Who were the important intellectual leaders of it? (give at least three examples)What obstacles slowed its progress? The scientific revolution is a period in time associated with the 16th and 17th century which was evident through advances in the field of physics, medicine, astronomy, chemistry, and biology (Gribbin, 6).This period was a major transformation of ancient and medieval paradigms of nature. It equally created the building blocks for modern science. Moreover, it led to immense implications in the religious and political word. The period of scientific revolution is also credited with major discoveries of new animal and plant species. The medieval thoughts before the scientific revolution exhibited connection of scientific principles espoused by the ancient authors. To this end, medieval scholars such as Thomas Aquinas supported Aristotle’s theory concerning the material world ( Gribbin, 47).The theory stated that the world was made up of four elements such as water, fire, air, and earth. Moreover, the medieval scholars used the theory of the four elements to formulate the principle alchemy. In this regard, they believed that the four elements formed part of the human body to create the four humours. These were blood, yellow bile, phlegm and black bile. Furthermore, medieval civilization believed in the philosophy of a Greek astronomer known as Ptolemy ( Gribbin, 104). In this regard, the Ptolemaic system espoused that the earth was placed at the centre of everything in the universe. However, following the advent of the scientific revolution, these medieval lines of thought were challenged by eminent intellectual leaders. Notable scholars in the scientific revolution included people such as Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543). Evidently, Copernicus is credited with publishing “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” also known as “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” (Gribbin, 398). In this regard, Copernicus theorised that the Earth revolved annually, around through sun through its daily, rotational movements on its axis. This theory was a direct challenge on the long held theory that the Earth was situated centrally at the universe with all the planets, Sun and moon rotating around it. Galileo Galilee was another eminent Italian physicist, astronomer and philosopher associated with the scientific revolution (Gribbin, 298). To this end, he created a telescope which produced a magnification 30 greater than that seen by the natural eye. In this regard, he used the telescope to make numerous astronomical discoveries such as sunspots, valleys and mountains present on the moon’s surface, various phases evident on the Venus planet, and Planet Jupiter’s four greatest moons. To this end, he published the “Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World.” Sir Isaac Newton was another great scientist of the scientific revolution engaged in the field of physics and mathematics. He is credited with publishing the “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica” also known as the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” ( Gribbin, 476). Evidently, his findings exhibited how the gravity as a universal force was acting on all the objects within the universe. The scientific revolution scholars faced several obstacles that slowed down the progress of the scientific revolution. For example, Nicholas Copernicus was first afraid to publish his works “Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.” Evidently, he was frightened at the possibility of provoking the theological views of the Church pertaining to the Church. On the other hand, Galileo’s work on the ‘Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World’ was challenged by the Church. It contributed to Galileo being placed under house arrest. 2) Explain the Scientific Method. Who were the pioneer thinkers who developed it in the 17th-18th centuries? Why was it a central concept in the growth and maturing of scientific thinking? The scientific method entails a method of creating models indicative of the natural world which can be ascertained experimentally ( Gribbin, 486). To this end, the scientific method entails making observations, recording of data and conducting analysis in a form which can be copied by other scientists. Furthermore, the scientific method involves the use of deductive and inductive reasoning which seek to replicate reliable, useful nature models and natural phenomena. In relation to inductive reasoning, it entails the assessment of specific instances to formulate a general theory or hypothesis. On the other hand, deductive entails utilising a theory for decoding specific results. Evidently, Rene Descartes is credited with publishing the ‘Discours de la Methode’( Gribbin, 393). To this end, he explained the systematic rules which are used for establishing what is true. This consequently established the scientific method principles. Evidently, the process of scientific method involves four key steps. The first step involves observation and describing of a phenomenon. It is conducted visually through the assistance of scientific equipment. The second step entails hypothesis formulation so as to offer explanations of the phenomenon through mathematical relation or casual mechanism. This is soon followed by hypothesis testing through analysis of observation results or through the observation and predictions on the existence of new incidents arising from the hypothesis. It is important to note that, whenever the hypothesis fails to exhibit conformity to the hypothesis, it should be modified by going back to step two or is rejected. The fourth step entails formulating a theory that is subject to the repetitive assessment of the results. Pioneer thinkers such as Galileo put this scientific method into practice when he invented the telescope which he used to discover the moons evident in Jupiter ( Gribbin, 386). Evidently, the telescope is an instrument that can be used in conducting scientific observations on established scientific principles. In this regard, the telescope achieves this through magnifying an image by use of light refractions. To this end, the images viewed through the telescope corresponded to the findings made by Galileo. His observations were later confirmed by other scientists which eventually changed the field of astronomy. On the other hand, there are other records that failed to withstand objectivity tests. An example includes the observations made by astronomer Percival Lowell concerning the canals of Mars. Evidently, Powell claimed to have discovered a canal network in planet Mars. He further credited the canals to intelligent life forms in planet Mars. However, these observations were not reproduced or verified independently. On the other hand, Powell exhibited deductive logic when he predicted that there existed another planet by the name of Pluto through evidence of perturbations in the orbits of Neptune and Uranus. Rene Descartes was another eminent mathematician who formulated a contemporary scientific method through deduction (Gribbin, 407). Evidently, Rene is renowned for his work on the, Discourse on Method where Descartes expunged every accepted idea that was in doubt. To this end, his conclusions indicated that there was certainty of nothing apart from facts that were in his thoughts which implied that he was in existence. In this regard, his primary proposition which stated that, “I think therefore I am,” led him into developing logical steps towards deducing God’s existence and the evident realities in the material and spiritual realms. To this end, the scientific method was a central concept towards the growth and nurturing of scientific thinking since it was based on a methodological process of evidence and verification. 3) Describe the major advances of science during the Enlightenment, especially in physics and chemistry. Identify the scientists who made these advances. (give at least three examples Noting each person’s contribution) The period of Enlightenment was marked by astronomical optimism pertaining to the inherent capacities of knowledge and reason in understanding and improving the world. Evidently, the Enlightenment period encouraged the power of science and reason as opposed to traditionally accepted views in understanding and reforming the world. To this end, significant advances were made in the field of sciences such as mathematics, chemistry and physics. There were equally advances made in political theory, philosophy, economics, technology and geography. In the field of physics, there is an eminent person by the name of Sir Isaac Newton who is credited with significant contribution during the Enlightenment period. To this end, he is famous for his works on Physics known as the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica also known as the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy ( Gribbin, 404). Evidently, in his first book of the Principia, Isaac Newton introduced the three Newton’s Laws also referred to as the three laws of motion. These were laws of action and reaction, laws of inertia action as well as law on acceleration that is proportional to force. On the other hand, Newton’s second book introduced his contemporary scientific philosophy which consequently substituted Cartesianism. His final third book on Principia contained an explanatory application for lunar motion as well as tides. Isaac Newton also made observations to prove that the Earths’ shape was oblate spheroidal instead of prolate spheroidal ( Gribbin, 93). Furthermore, Newton deduced equations pertaining to the motion exhibited by the moon. In addition, Newton is credited with formulating and solving the pioneer problems pertaining to calculus of variations. Johannes Kepler (1571-1601), was another important German revolutionist during the era of Enlightenment (Gribbin, 104). Evidently he was a German astronomer who re-evaluated the Copernican theory. He is regarded as the father of ‘celestial mechanics’ by offering explanations pertaining to the motions of the planets. It is important to note that Copernicus had made assumptions to the effect that planets travelled around the sun in circular motions. In re-evaluating Copernican theory, Kepler utilised the observations conducted by Brahe. To this end, Kepler established three pertinent laws. The first law by Kepler states that a planet’s orbit around the sun is elliptical and at one focus, is the sun’s centre of mass. The second law of Kepler established that a line that joined the sun and a planet, covered up equal areas and within equal time intervals. The third law by Kepler was conclusive in proving that there was proportionality between period squares of planets and the cubes of the planet’s semi-major axes. Robert Boyle is regarded as the ‘father of modern chemistry’ during the 17th century of the Enlightenment era. He was the first pioneer scientist to conduct controlled experiments. He equally published his with that contained intricate details about observations, procedure and apparatus. To this end, Boyle published his notable work on ‘The Spring and Weight of the Air.’ In his research work he offered descriptions of experiments by devising a new vacuum pump. In his second book, Robert Boyle describes his most famous contribution to date. The book detailed Boyle’s law which showed that whenever the volume of a gas is decreased, there is an equal proportional increase in the pressure. In order to demonstrate his law, Boyle devised a chemical corpuscular theory which was based on the understanding that all gas particles were constituted by tiny particles. Boyle equally offered a contemporary definition of the element. He also devised standard chemical tests such as litmus tests for differentiating bases from acids. 4) Although the 19th century is often treated as Darwin's century, there was also enormous development in physical science in that time. Describe these developments (give at least four examples and identify the scientists who made them) Explain how these advances are the foundation for our contemporary understanding of the physical universe The end of the 19th century marked significant advances in the world of physical sciences. To this end, the period was also termed as the ‘classical Physics.’ In this regard the creative innovations that were developed laid a foundation to the revolution of the 20th Century. Eminent personalities of the 19th century included Albert Einstein. Evidently, the dawn of the 20th century redefined physics through combining the Newtons’ gravity theory, his laws on mechanics, the Brownian motion among others. The Brownian motion was formulated by Albert Einstein in which he defined it as the random movement of small particles when suspended in a liquid. To this end, Albert Einstein formulated a theoretical explanation of Brownian motion through use of the atomic hypothesis. In this regard, Einstein stated that movement of the suspended particles within the liquid was due to the particle being displaced in a random manner by the water particles. The overall implication of Einstein’s work was that it provided a experimental application of the atomic hypothesis. James Clerk Maxwell is another prominent contributor to physical science. His most notable areas of contribution include optics, thermodynamics, electricity, electromagnetism and astrophysics. To this end he formulated the kinetic theory of gases. He equally formed a formula known as Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Maxwell also offered an explanation of molecule of particle velocity evident in gases at any defined temperature. Evidently, Maxwell’s kinetic theory stated that heat and temperature exhibit relationship only during molecular movement. James Prescotte Joule was best known for his 19th century physical discoveries pertaining to heat conservation, and mechanical value of heat. To this end, the joule denotes a unit value of energy that was named after James Prescotte Joule. The physicist is attributed with appreciating the value of conducting accurate measurements. He formulated a quantitative statement pertaining to the laws that determined production of heat within a conductor via an electric current. James Prescotte Joule is equally credited with formulating a paper entitled “The Calorific Effects of Magneto-electricity and the Mechanical value of heat.” Evidently, Joule sought to establish synchrony between thermal, chemical and electrical phenomena through performing several tests that exhibited their quantitative equivalence and inter-convertibility. To this end, James Prescotte focussed his interest in the transformation of heat into mechanical work. The efforts by James Prescotte Joule in exhibiting energy conservation led to his last name being used as the SI unit of energy( Gribbin, 89). Consequently, his contributions to the field of energy have shaped physical sciences through a unit of measurement which can be used in energy measurements. Michael Faraday is a renowned British chemist and physicist credited with inventions on the electrolysis laws as well as electromagnetic induction (Gribbin, 84). His most famous invention pertained to the electric motor. To this end, Michael Faraday constructed two devices for the purpose of generating electromagnetic rotation. The electromagnetic rotation was in reference to the continuous circular motion generated from the circular magnetic force emanating within a wire. It is pertinent to note that Faraday’s innovations have contributed to the development of small scale and large scale motor devices for electricity generation. Reference Gribbin, John R.. The scientists: a history of science told through the lives of its greatest inventors. New York: Random House, 2003. Print. Read More