From Counterculture to Cyberculture: the Rise of Digital Utopianism - Report Example

? Timeline Timeline The question of who invented the computer does not necessarily have a simple response. The factual response isthat many inventors have played significant role in the history of computers. Computers are intricate pieces of machinery with various components, all of which are deemed as separate inventions (Black, 2001). The history of computing is marked by major milestones experienced in the development the modern computer, especially with regard to its hardware. Prior to the year 1935, computers typically referred to people who carried out arithmetic calculations. However, in the 20th century, specifically between the year 1935 and 1945, the definition of the computer described a machine, instead of a person. The definition of the computer used today is based primarily in von Neumann’s conception that the computer is a device, which is capable of accepting data input, processing data, storing it and producing data output. The history of computing has progressed from the vacuum tube to the transistor, ultimately to the microchip and modem. This paper will provide a comprehensive timeline of the history of computing, describing the evolution of various computing items through timelines such as 2400 BC–1949, 1950–1979, 1980–1989, 1990–1999, 2000–2009, 2010–2019. 2400 BC–1949 In this period, computing devices focused primarily on enhancing people’s capacities to make calculations. The initial devices used for calculation were tally sticks, with the Lebombo bone being the first known to modern archeology. However, the abacus, developed in 2400BC is the first ever calculator, invented by the Babylonians to enhance simple arithmetic. The Chinese abacus (suanpan) was invented in 200BC and was widely used before the invention of present day’s calculator (Isaacson, 2011). In 1822, British Charles Babbage developed his initial mechanical computer, which served as the initial prototype for tabulating polynomials through a decimal difference engine. In 1869, British William Stanley Jevons built the initial practical logic machine. In 1906, Lee De Forest invented the vacuum tube and in 1928, IBM standardized punched cards bearing 80 data columns and rectangular holes. These IBM cards were the originators of the data processing industry in computing. In 1930, American Vannevar Bush developed a partly electronic difference engine with the capacity to solve differential equations. In 1939, German Helmut Schreyer completed a prototype memory using neon lamps and a 10-bit adder prototype using vacuum tubes. In 1942, Americans Atanasoff and Berry made a special-purpose calculator for system solutions of linear equations, later known as the Atanasoff-Berry-Computer (ABC). German Konrad Zuse created the S1, which was the first process computer that measured the surface of wings (Turner, 2006). In 1944, IBM developed the second program machine, which was 51 feet long and weighed nearly 5 tons. In British, in 1949, the Manchesteer Mark 1’s final specifications were completed. This machine was the first computer to utilize the equivalent of index registers, which entered the second generation computing architecture in 1955. 1950–1979 This period appeared to focus intently on the creation of computer communication and intelligence. In 1950, the Pilot ACE computer, having 800 vacuum tubes with mercury delay lines as its main memory became functional in the UK (Black, 2001). In 1951, Americans J. Prespert Eckert and John Maunchly designed the first commercially operational electronic computer, UNIVAX, which handled both textual and numeric information. This machine’s implementation was the real start of the computer age (Isaacson, 2011). In 1951, the CIRAC (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Automatic Computer) became the first digital computer used to play music. In 1952, IBM introduced the IBM 701, which was the initial computer in its 700 and 7000 series of large scale machines. In 1960, the initial ordered, technical programming language, ALGOrithmic Language (ALGOL) was released. In 1963, American Douglas Engelbart conceived the computer mouse. IBM released the PL/I programming language in 1964. In US, in 1965, the first minicomputer developed by Digital Equipment (DEC) was released. Intel produced the initial dynamic RAM chip in 1970 before releasing the 4004, the initial microprocessor in 1971. In 1971, American Ray Tomlinson developed the initial program capable of sending emails through the Arpanet. American company, Texas Instruments released the initial easily portable electronic calculator in 1971 (Turner, 2006). In 1796, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded Apple Inc to market Apple 1 single board computer. In 1979, Texas Instruments developed its TI-99/4 microcomputer, which used audio cassettes for information storage and ROM modules that were the same as gaming units to hold commercial software. 1980-1989 This period focused primarily on the development of computer architecture and enhanced systems to support such architecture. In 1980, Norwegian firm Mycron released the Mycron 200, which was the initial commercial 16-bit microprocessor. American firm Commodore released its VIC-20 with a 3.5B usable memory capacity and Tandy produced the TRS-80 color computer that used Motorola’s6809E processor and Microsoft Basic programming language. In 1981, Xerox released its 8010 Star System, which was the initial commercial computer system to use windows, icons, menus and pointing devices (WIMP) graphic user interface. In August 1981, IBM announced the release of its personal computer, which became the foundation of modern personal computers (Isaacson, 2011). The 80286 was released in 1982, implementing new operation modes and protection mode that allowed for greater access to memory (16MB). In the same year IBM released the dual-sided 320KB floppy disk drive. In 1983, Apple Inc. released its first personal computer bearing a graphical user interface called the Lisa, which operated on Motorola’s 68000 microprocessor and 1MB RAM, 5MB profile hard drive and double 5.25” floppy disk drives. IBM also released its IM XT version with MS-DOS 2.0, PC-DOS 2.0 and a UNIX style hierarchical sub-directory outline. This system transformed the way programs loaded and accessed files on disks. In 1994, Apple released its Macintosh based on Motorola 68000 processor’s 8MHz version with the ability to address 16MB of RAM. Lotus and Intel introduced the expanded memory specification system with a memory paging system for PCs (Isaacson, 2011). The Connection Machine was released in 1987, and served as a supercomputer that used 64,000 normal microprocessors instead of circuit integration. The initial optical chip that used light rather than electricity to enhance processing speed was developed in 1988. Swiss Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, which used hypertext to ease the accessibility of information from different computers. 1990-1999 In 1990, the consortium of major manufacturers of SVGA cards called VESA (Video Electronic Standard Association) was established, ultimately resulting in the introduction of the VESA SVGA standard. Apple also released the Macintosh llfx based on the 40MHz version of the 68030 to achieve 10 MIPS with an SCI adapter that provided faster transfers information at 3.0 Mbit/s (Turner, 2006). Microsoft also introduced Windows 3.0, a multitasking system, which sustains compatibility with MS-DOS by enabling numerous MS-DOS operations to be performed once on an 80386 or greater. In 1991, Commodore released its CDTV, an Amiga multimedia appliance characterized by a CD-ROM instead of a floppy drive. In 1992, Philips launched its CD-I and Motorola, IBM and Apple Computer developed the PowerPC 601, which was the first generation of Power PC processors. Commodore International also released the Amiga 1200 and 4000, which both encompassed the improved Advanced Graphics Architecture chipset. In 1993, Windows NT 3.1 was developed to support 32-bit programs (Isaacson, 2011). MS-DOS 6.0, which consisted of a hard disk compression program named DoubleSpace, was released. 1994 saw the release of a myriad of computer games while Peter Shor developed an algorithm that enables quantum computers to ascertain the factorization of massive integer rapidly. In 1996, Nokia introduced its first smartphone, the Nokia 9000. id Software released its QuakeWorld system for Internet multiplayer games, consisting of numerous innovative features, for instance, movement predictions, making the games highly playable in low-speed, as well as high-latency Internet connections. In 1997, Intel produced the Pentium MMX encompassing the MMX instruction set made to enhance performance while running multimedia applications. Linux Kernel 2.2.0 was released in 1998, and provided in important operating system in the PC world (Turner, 2006). 2000-2009 This period encompassed the release of innovative computer systems and smartphones. In 2000, the Ericsson R380 was released alongside the initial phone running Symbian OS. Transmeta also released the Crusoe microprocessor aimed at reducing electricity consumption in laptops. Microsoft also launched Windows 2000, a faster and more reliable Windows version. Sony also released the PlayStation 2 (Turner, 2006). In 2001, Apple released Mac OS X, a novel OS based on NeXTSTEP, an open source OS derived from BDS. This gave Mac users benefits such as the stability of a protected memory architecture with other enhancements, for instance, pre-emptive multitasking. In 2002, RIM released the initial BlackBerry smartphone (Isaacson, 2011). In 2003, NVIDIA released GeForce FX, a part of DirectX 9.0-compatible 3D cards, which have extensive vertex shaders and pixel support. This invention typified the inception of cinematic computing. In 2004, Sony released, in Japan, the first ever e-book reader will electronic paper display capacity, known as Librie EBR-1000EP. In 2005, Nokia announced the development of the Nokia 770 Internet Tablet, which was the original device running Maemo while Intel released the original dual-core 64-bit desktop processor, the Pentium D. Microsoft also released the Xbox 360 in 2005 and announced release of the next consumer OS (Windows Vista) to be made available in the year 2007 (Turner, 2006). In 2006, Intel released mobile 32-bit single-core and dual-core processors (Core brand) using Pentium M’s microarchitecture and the Core 2 processor in the same year. In the same year, Intel announced plans for the establishment of an 80-core processor with the capacity to exceed 1 TFLOP. Apple launched its original iPhone in 2007 while Verizon Wireless launched the original version of Android in 2008. 2010-2019 This period is primarily characterized by the development of hand-help computer devices, which have revolutionized the computing world in the 21st century. This period also continues to witness continuous advances in the mobile computing world. In 2010, Apple released its first iPad and released the iPhone 4 in the same year. The iPad typifies the line of table computers, which are designed to run on Apple’s iOS operating system (Black, 2001). The iPad computer has the capacity to take photos, play music and shoot videos, while also performing online functions such as emailing and browsing the web. In 2011, Seagate released the original 4 terabyte hard drive, which significantly enhanced the memory and storage capacity of modern computers. In 2012, TDK demonstrated the applicability of a 2 terabyte hard drive on a one 3.5-inch platter. Microsoft also released its Windows 8 operating system and Nintend released its Wii U in the US. In conclusion, this paper has provided a succinct description of the history of computing by describing major inventions in computing. The paper used distinctive timelines to portray the progress experienced in the computing world. References Black, E. (2001). IBM and the holocaust: The strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and America's most powerful corporation. New York: Crown Publishers. Isaacson, W. (2011). Steve Jobs. New York: Simon & Schuster. Turner, F. (2006). From counterculture to cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the whole earth network, and the rise of digital utopianism. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. Read More