Social Construction of Technology and Actor Network Theory - Essay Example

Social Construction of Technology and Actor Network Theory Social Construction of Technology and Actor Network TheoryA number of perspectives have been developed to define the relationship between human beings and technology. These perspectives also seek to answer questions on how technology has emerged and evolved. Instrumentalism is such one view and it holds that technology is a mere tool which is used by the human beings to carry out different activities. The instrumental concept of technology also dictates that technological artefacts are neutral. In contrast, determinists often argue that technology is an autonomous and revolutionary force and it has the capability to eliminate all ills that afflict humanity. According to the determinists, human beings are directed by the technology, and cannot decide on how the technology will be used. In other words, the society is influenced by the technology. Another important perspective is sustantivism which suggests that human beings are enframed by technology. Human beings also lose their will if they become attached to the technological systems. This perspective shapes different institutions including the political systems, culture and social structure. The perspective further holds that technology has its own independent values, which human beings cannot be able to change. This paper examines the social construction of technology and actor network theory. Social construction of technology theory According to Gad and Jensen (2009), this theory rejects the determinists’ perspectives that the society is influenced by the technology. The concepts of this theory are well described in an article titled, the social construction of technology: structural considerations. The writers of this article, Klein and Kleinman (2002) observe that the first component of the SCOT theory is interpretive flexibility. According to Klein and Kleinman (2002), this concept is borrowed from the empirical program of relativism and suggests that artifacts are products of intergroup negotiations. The second component is the relevant social group concept. According to this component, social groups share same values and characteristics. In this regard, different social groups can differ on how a particular technology works, but in the end they come into a consensus. The third component of this theory is closure and stabilization. According to this component, multi-group processes occur until a consensus is reached, and stabilization is facilitated by the rhetorical closure and closure by definition. Rhetorical closure occurs when all problems are eliminated while closure by definition happens when the problem is redefined until it poses no more threat to social groups. The last concept as suggested by Gad and Jensen (2009) is the wider context. This concept relates the technological artifact to the wider sociopolitical milieu. In this regard, Gad and Jensen (2009) argue that the SCOT framework helps the researchers to describe the technological artifacts while providing them with an avenue of examining the relationship between the external environment and the actual content of the technology. Interpretive flexibility Gad and Jensen (2009) define interpretive flexibility as the ability of the technical artifact to represent different benefits to a number of actors. As earlier suggested, social groups have different interpretations about a particular artifact. The application of this concept is demonstrated in an article where Sovacool (2011) argues that technologies and process have different meaning to the social groups. Just to illustrate, telephones were not produced for enjoyment purposes, but they have since become an important part of our social life. Similarly, refrigerators are not only used to preserve foods, but have found ready application in housing of animals and other valuables. While the concept was predominantly used in the design phases, it is being absorbed in the study of information systems. In this regard, Gad and Jensen (2009) argue that any piece of technology must have the ability to sustain divergent interpretations. According to Gad and Jensen (2009), for apiece of technology to have interpretive flexibility it must have a range of functions and capabilities. However, as Abbate (1999) observes it is not clear how an artifact’s characteristics can influence its ability to be interpreted flexibility. With this in mind, Abbate (1999) conducted an empirical study to gain knowledge of reality through social constructionism. This study was conducted within the UK context, and sought to examine the hospital IT infrastructure within the Community Care Trusts. The researchers examined in details whether or not the information systems could support the workers’ needs. The study also examined how the material characteristics of an IT system can lead to different interpretations as far as the use of artifacts is concerned. At the end of the study, Abbate (1999) concluded that there is need to redefine the boundaries of the IT system. Relevant social group As described above, social groups refer to the teams which interact with the artifact. As far as the technology is concerned, the relevant social groups could be the users, and the engineers. Downey (2002) suggests that locating the relevant social groups can be done through the snow balling approach. Interviewing the actors helps the researchers to identify social groups to which they are affiliated to. Through constant interactions and negotiations, multiple interpretations start disappearing. Identifying social groups that will benefit from a particular technology through the snow balling technique may end up being problematic. According to Downey (2002) the snow balling technique is not accurate enough and may lead to distortions. As Downey (2002) further suggests, using the snowball approach could lead to the exclusion of some of the social groups. The importance of the social groups during the designing of different technologies is highlighted in an article titled, TVA and the Grass roots. In this article, Douglas (1999) examines how the local groups led to the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority. According to Douglas (1999) the development of a similar techno-system in another different location without first determining the need of the local population would have led to different outcomes. The failure of this system is highlighted in a study conducted by Kline and Pinch (1996) where the lamp manufacturers and the electricity producers failed to incorporate the needs of the consumers. Failure to incorporate the interests of the social groups affected the final outcomes. Closure and stabilization As suggested above, there are constant negotiations that take place before the technology becomes acceptable. Once the interpretative flexibility of an artifact diminishes, the process is said to have come to an end. Closure could also occur when no single group dominates the process or when all groups come into an agreement. Secondly, closure occurs when one of the social group eclipses the others. Homogeneity across the closure groups translates to higher degrees of stabilization. As Downey (2002) suggests, the key terms that are associated with this concept are: rhetorical closure and closure by definition. Rhetorical closure occurs once the problem has been resolved. Advertisements can be used to obtain a rhetorical closure was the case with the high-wheeler. The manufacturers of this artefact launched the “Facile” advertisement to illustrate to the public that the artefact was safe enough. According to Bijker et al. (1987), this was a rhetorical move, which answered any concerns that the social groups had. Technological frame The SCOT framework was re-defined to include this component which takes into consideration power and structure. This concept was introduced by Bijker et al. (1987) and takes into consideration elements that can influence the technological process. Kline and Pinch (1996) used this principle to demonstrate how gender roles influence the design of the automobiles. The concept, according to Kline and Pinch (1996), heavily influences the behaviour and the thoughts of the actors who are interested in a particular artefact. The existence of a technological frame determines the level of the inclusion attained by the actors. In this regard, once the actors develop a technological frame, a high degree of inclusion is achieved. In contrast, if the actors fail to develop a technological frame they do not interact deeply with the technological artefact. As suggested by Kline and Pinch (1996), one other theme that is closely related to the technological frame concept, is semiotic power. Semiotic structures influence the nature of the interactions between the actors. A common strategy that is employed by the actor is political power, whose purpose is to influence social groups and develop frames and structures. In this regard, actors may enrol the social groups to prove the effectiveness of a particular artefact. Actor network theory The theory emerged in 1980s and was suggested by Bruno Latour and Michel Callon, and unlike the other conceptual frameworks, the theory incorporates objects and organizations. Actors involve the non-human elements such as the machines, animals, texts, and hybrids. According to this theory, there are many actants which are considered foundationally indeterminate. Besides the actors, there are the networks and according this theory seeks to examine how these both elements interact. Firstly, the theory suggests that the networks have the capability to strengthen and fight off any resistance. Secondly, the networks can prevent the actors from carrying out their own activities As Law and Mol (2002) observe, the theory is built on three methodological principles. The first principle is agnosticism which imposes impartiality on the actants while the second principle is generalized symmetry. According to Law and Mol (2002) generalized symmetry is useful in the interpretation of the actants, human and non-human elements. The last element is free association, which removes the distinction between the natural and social phenomenon. One of the key the principal concepts of the ANT theory is translation. This function involves stabilization of the relations between the actors and is often viewed as the process of social and physical displacement. Law and Mol (2002) suggest that the translation process allows the actors to create convergences and homologies. Williams (1999) observes that another principle tenet of this theory is heterogeneous network. The networks contain many social and technical elements. Law and Mol (2002) further suggests that, all stakeholders including the humans, organizations and non-humans are important in the social network. While the SCOT framework examines the stability of the social groups, the ANT theory discussed the social and non-social aspects to examine the work of technologies. Criticism While the ANT framework allows the researchers to examine a variety of issues, it is not effective in making dialectical socio-technical interpretations. The other deficiencies of this theory are critically analyzed below. Methodological inefficiencies One of the major limitations of the ANT theory is the difficulty of implementation. The theory requires many methodological rules, and emphasizes on case studies and empirical observation. The difficulties of implementing this theory are recognized by Williams (1999) who argues that this approach requires a long-term ethnographic research, which makes it hard to implement the process. Researchers also point out that the theory is characterized by complexity, diversity and volatility. Due to these challenges sometimes the researchers are forced to rely on the organizing devices. Using such devices makes it impossible for the researchers to observe the elements of induction Besides the long-term research methods required to successfully implement this theory, researchers are also faced with numerous intrinsically methodological challenges. Just to illustrate, the theory insists on following the actor, but such an approach may end being counterproductive besides promoting subjectivity. The theory has also been accused of imposing the world view of the researcher by attributing agency to the non-human elements. In addition, the theory does not specify how one network can be de-lineated from the other. Methodological challenges also originate from the roles given to the researcher. In this regard, the researcher has been given the responsibility of labelling the actors, defining the passage points and drawing the actor-network. In addition, the researchers can adopt other interventions such as story-telling. In order to address the challenges associated with ethnographic research methods, Williams (1999) recommends researchers to adopt a more reflexive approach. At the same time, the researchers should question their abilities, by engaging in self-reflection. Rather than relying on their abilities, the researchers should also be guided by the actors themselves. That way, the researchers are able to make informed decisions (Williams, 1999). Analytical problems As suggested by Williams (1999), the theory subscribes to anti-dualism and anti-determinism. According to Doolin and Lowe (2003), it also tends to be descriptive rather than explanatory and it for this reason that some of the researchers use this approach in combination with other theories. For instance, some researchers are known to combine the ANT theory with institutional, connectivism and structuration theories. Moral perspective There are perceptions that the ANT theory is amoral and apolitical and does not promote equal distribution of power. As a result, some of the networks become dominant, while others are suppressed. To address this challenge, some of the researchers have resulted to the adoption of power-related conceptualisations such as Clegg’s concept. The aspect of immorality is also evident in the way people are treated. In this regard, human beings occupy the same role as machines and non-human elements. Humans and technology are considered to be equal partners in the actor-network. This move goes against what is widely accepted as the truth: that not all actors are equal. There is a perception that human beings should occupy a much higher status and contribute more in the network compared to the actors. In other words, human beings should be treated with the dignity they merit, and in this sense they should not be compared with machines or non-machines. A number of problems arise by equalizing human beings with the non-human elements. According to Latour (2002), by perceiving the actors to be equal, some of the social constructions are lost. At the same time, the application of the ANT theory leads to the loss of exogenous contingencies. Law and Hassard (199) further suggest that there is need to conduct further investigation in order to determine why the actors took a certain decision. It is for these reasons, which argue there is need to use more complex approach to determine the issues facing the actors (Law and Hassard,199) On the political front, the theory is accused of lacking insight and just to illustrate, McLean and Hassard (2004) uses an appropriate example. According to McLean and Hassard (2004), the level of internet penetration is very low, compared to the other continents. Lack of political goodwill by the African governments is one of the reasons why the level of the internet is very low. However, this scenario cannot be understood be merely examining the network. This example shows that the empirical results obtained through research studies should be interpreted in terms of moral and political context. While failing to examine the political context, this approach disregards the broader powers and inequalities (McLean and Hassard, 2004). Instrumental perspective The theory has been accused of failing to provide practical solutions to the worldly problems. In others words, the theory is theoretical in nature and lacks enough practicability. The researcher merely follows the actor, and tries to understand what they are doing, and then makes up a story. More so, as earlier indicated, the approach mainly relies on the qualitative research and as such does not accommodate more reliable concepts such as hypothesis testing. Moreover, the researchers are require to be agnostic, which is hard given that the ANT approach uses qualitative methodology (Doolin and Lowe, 2002). Despite these criticisms, there is a perception that this approach is very effective in understanding the relationship between the human beings and the inanimate objects. Already, the theory is being applied in the healthcare sector to evaluate the effectiveness of the IT systems. The conceptual value of the ANT-informed approach was investigated in a study conducted by Doolin and Lowe (2002). According to Doolin and Lowe (2002), the conceptual application of the ANT theory can easily be found in the healthcare system, to examine how realities are experienced and understand the feelings of the actors. More so, the approach can effectively be used by the researchers to examine the under-relatedness between various actors. To understand, how different actors relate with each other, Kaghan and Bowker (2001) conducted a study in New Zealand. Kaghan and Bowker (2001) suggest that the approach can be used to question simplistic assumptions in the use of technology. Just to illustrate, Berg examined the role of the technology in mediating the interactions between the healthcare staff (1999). Berg (1999) found out that technology has the ability to re-define the relationship between the human actors. While the theory is associated with a number of weaknesses, it has other inherent capabilities. One such capability is fluidity, which helps the researchers to re-examine the reality. Often, some of the research designs assume a liner approach; hence it becomes difficult to question the reality and other assumptions. Just to illustrate, the computers and other devices that human beings use are not merely passive instruments, but rather they play an important role in shaping social realities. These devices are equally important and they influence the power relationships between the human beings. To prove this point, Rydin (2010) conducted a comprehensive study in a health care centre. Rydin (2010) combined the ANT approach with the multi-sited ethnography to examine the role of the electronic health record software. The researcher found that the role played by technology is so imperative because it significantly influences the way humans do things, including the way they interact and the quality if their lives. In sum, social construction of technology is a comprehensive theory, which seeks to examine the relationship between different actors. According to this framework, the society shapes the technology, and as such to determine whether an artefact is right or wrong, then the researchers must first of all examine the interactions of the human actors. This theory is generally acceptable unlike the ANT-framework, which equalizes both human and non-human actors. The ANT framework has heavily been criticised for having weak methodologies and failure to promote equal distribution of power. In addition, the framework is theoretical in nature, and tends to be descriptive rather than explanatory. Reference list Abbate, J., 1999. Inventing the Internet, Inside Technology. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press Berg, M., 1999. Patient care information systems and health care work: a sociotechnical approach. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 55, 87–101 Bijker, Wiebe E., Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987. Doolin, B. and Lowe, A., 2002. To reveal is to critique: actor-network theory and critical information systems research. Journal of Information Technology, 17, 69–78. Douglas, S., 1999. Listening In : Radio and the American Imagination, from Amos N Andy and Edward R. Murrow to Wolfman Jack and Howard Stern. New York: Times Books Downey, J., 2002. Telegraph Messenger Boys : Labor, Technology, and Geography, 1850-1950. New York: Routledge Gad, C. and Jensen, C.B., 2009. On the Consequences of Post-ANT. Science Technology Human Values Kaghan, W.N., and Bowker, G.C.,2001. Out of machine age?: complexity, socio-technical systems and actor network theory. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 18, 253–269. Klein, H. and Kleinman, D., 2002. The social construction of technology structural considerations. Science Technology Human Values Winter 2002 vol. 27 no. 1 28-52 Latour, B., 2005. Reassembling the social: an introduction to Actor-Network Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press Law, J., and Hassard, J., 1999. Actor network theory and after. Oxford, England: Blackwell Law, J., and Mol, A., 2002. Complexities - social studies of knowledge practices. Duke University Press McLean, C., and Hassard, J., 2004. Symmetrical Absence/Symmetrical Absurdity: Critical Notes on the production of Actor Network Theory. Journal of Management Studies, 41, 493–519 Mol, A., 2002. The Body Multiple: Ontology in Medical Practice. Duke University Press Rydin, Y., 2010. Actor-network theory and planning theory: A response to Boelens. Planning Theory, 9, 265–268. Sovacool, B., 2011. The interpretive flexibility of oil and gas pipelines: case studies from Southeast Asia and the Caspian Sea. Technology Forecasting and Social change, 78, 610-620 Williams M., 1996. Introduction to the Philosophy of Social Research. Routledge Read More