Biological Theories of Crime - Assignment Example

Theories of Criminology Biological theories of crime attempt to establish the connection between human body structure and criminal activities. Such theories assume that genetic composition, evolutionary factors, anatomy of the brain and the type of hormones have strong influence on an individual’s tendency to get involved in criminal activities. The study of these features indicate that several biological conditions like lack of nutrition, neurological defects, low serotonin activity and atmospheric pollution can shape a person’s criminal propensity. There is developmental life-course theory that explains that fact that aggressions in individuals are borne from early life experiences starting from birth. It is indicated that personality and genetics of a person have link with social influences like family and peer environment. The impact of parental role is also explained by psychological theories that state neglect or abuse from parents can also lead to criminal tendencies. Therefore, where biological theories stress upon genetic and brain compositions, other theories look at external factors like social and environmental impact (Theories of the Causes of Crime, 2009). 2. It was during the 19th century that physical appearance was given importance regarding studying criminal aggressiveness in individuals. Collins (1999) has explored the core subject of physiognomy which states that unaltered body structures can reflect the characteristic of a person. In the field of physiognomy it is considered that physical features like distance between two eyes or structure of the forehead can tell about a person’s strengths like intelligence and honesty (Collins, 1999, p.251). It was the 19th century Italian criminologist, Cesare Lombroso who had observed resemblance between the skulls of a notorious criminal and those belonging to lower races. He coined the term “born criminals” and attributed their criminology to physical features like “drooping eyes, large ears, protruding jaw, flat nose” (Valla et al., 2011, p.70). 3. During the 1970s and 1980s, various studies have demonstrated that children born from parents who have been imprisoned carry greater potential of becoming criminals during adult years even if they are brought up by law-abiding foster parents. From these adoptive studies, it has been concluded that genetic impact on criminal behavior is significant irrespective of gender although females are more subjected to individual genetic risk than the males. Moreover, it has been observed that parents with records of petty crimes impart more genetic effect on their children than parents who are violent offenders (Baker et al., 2010, p.21). Research has suggested that neurochemicals like monoamine oxidase (MOA), epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine influence behavioral patterns in certain regions of the brain. While low MOA is responsible for antisocial behavior leading to aggressive behavior, low levels of serotonin can cause depression and anxiety which can also lead to aggressiveness and impulsive actions (Jones, 2005). 4. Sociobiology is a subject which focuses on social behavior as result of evolution. It is believed that behaviors of both human and non-humans are influenced by natural selection which is the basis of evolutionary theory. Sociobiologists provide logical explanation of behavioral patterns. Inherited traits that caused greater chance of survival or reproduction in the past will be more manifested in current generations (Driscoll, 2013). Sociobiologists emphasize on biological and genetic factors as causes of anti-social behaviors. According to sociobiologists along with genetic influences there are also environmental factors that affect human behavior. However, sociobiologists mostly stress on biological factors. They say that people behave in a certain manner known as reciprocal altruism which means people are more inclined towards ensuring their own survival and the survival of those with whom they are genetically related like relatives and fellow citizens (Siegel, 2011, p.143). 5. There are constitutional factors to explain the pattern of human behavior like gender, age, intelligence, personality and psychopathology. A person with low IQ level and doing poor performance in school may be inclined towards criminal activities (Silverman et al., 2002, p.23). Constitutional factors can also be caused by prenatal issues. For instance, a mother who smokes or is addicted to drugs during pregnancy can have negative impact on the infant in the manner that it may grow up to exhibit aggressive behavior. Likewise, if an infant experiences trauma during birth like oxygen deficiency for prolonged period or lack of care after birth, then that infant may also later become a criminal (Gabbidon, 2010, p.25). 6. In order to reduce crime and deter individuals from getting involved in anti-social activities, social policies need to focus on creating mitigating circumstances which will refrain exercising of free will. Punishment of criminals needs to be more rehabilitative so that there are reduced chances of recidivating. Studies have shown that there has been a significant decrease in crime rates in the USA and UK. One policy that was introduced in USA in 1973 was “mass imprisonment” which was successful in declining crime rates. However, other influencing factors were policies like amendments in gun laws and stringent drug control measures (Knepper, 2012, p.360). In 1927, there was Buck v. Bell case in the US Supreme Court that legitimized eugenics. Carrie Buck was sterilized as she gave birth out of wedlock and also she was mentally retarded (Shoemaker, 2013, p.67). 7. The major reason for which sociologists criticize single minded approach of considering genetic factors and physical appearances as factors for crime is that they believe that there are other social, economic and environmental factors that need to be given equal importance. Growing poverty level along with increasing economic disparity between the rich and the poor, racial and class prejudices, parental role in bringing up children, peer behavior in schools, low education in developing countries are the many factors that can lead to increased anti-social behavior. Racial theorists consider that violation of basic human rights provoke minorities to become criminals. 8. Classical theory attempts to provide a logical explanation to human behavior in contrast to earlier theories which believed in supernatural explanations. The principle concepts of classical theory can be seen in the works of eighteenth century like Baccaria, Bentham, and later Garofalo and Ferri. The most explicit idea reflected in their works is free will of human beings which is influenced by the goal of seeking pleasure in their activities. Whether a person will choose anti-social activities depends on his or her perspective that there will be more pleasure than any pain that will be derived from such activities. Classical criminologists support policies like a simple and unbiased legal system to deal with criminals, punishments should be prompt and in accordance with the level of crime, education of the public, and rewarding citizens with positive virtues (Hagan, 2012, p.125; Walklate, 2007, pp.18-19). 9. The Enlightenment era was of intense revolutions in the fields of politics, science, philosophy and society. The underlying theory was to destroy the old and make way for new beliefs, concepts and philosophies. Some of the pre classical thinks were the French like Voltaire, Diderot, D’Alembert, and Montesquieu, and the Scottish like Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Thomas Reid. These writers advocated the concept that individuals need to give importance to their own intelligence and should have the capacity to decide what is wrong and what is right. According to them, human beings should progress by using their own intellectual capacities to lead a more fulfilled life (Bristow, 2011). Such thoughts are in alignment with classical criminology as both gives emphasis on free will of human beings. 10. The classical school of thought was founded by the Italian law professor, Cesare Bonesana. In 1764, he published Dei Delitti e delle Pene (On Crimes and Punishment), which played a revolutionary role in criminal justice system and advocated fair, humane and rational punishment for criminals. Another major name in the classical school was the British lawyer and philosopher, Jeremy Bentham. His popular publication was Principles of Morals and Legislation which was based on “principle of utility”. It suggested that maximum happiness should be derived by the maximum number of people, and the morality of one’s actions should be judged based on the impact of the actions on the society (Walsh & Hemmens, 2010, pp.72-73). 11. Today, the neoclassical theory takes forward the classical theory of criminology as both schools of thought believe the exercising of free will of human beings in order to judge what is right and wrong, and accordingly they can choose their actions. While the classical theory believes in consistent punishments for similar crimes, neoclassical theory believes in mitigating circumstances, i.e. punishments should be based on the circumstances of crime. For instance, neoclassical theory does not support same kind of punishment for similar crimes committed by first time offenders and seasoned offenders. According to classical theory, since people choose crime out of free will therefore punishment should be severe while neoclassical theory strives to provide rehabilitative punishments (Tibbets & Himmens, 2009, p.66). 12. In classical school of criminology, punishment is given in accordance with the type of crime committed. Since people are given free will to choose their way of life, therefore punishment is severe and does not considered any mitigating circumstances. Punishment is certain which means all offenders are punished. It is also swift as delayed punishment cannot act as discouraging factor for potential criminals. On the other hand, neoclassical theory considers mitigating circumstances like mental condition of the offender, and whether it is his or her first time offence. According to this theory, punishment is rehabilitative thus providing the chance to offenders to lead a law-abiding life post-imprisonment. It is the neoclassical approach that can work best to prevent crime since it motivates people to refrain from anti-social activities due to mitigating circumstances. 13. In classical school of criminology, punishment is given that fits the crime. Since, this theory considers that people exercise free will when committing crime in order to derive pleasure from their activities, therefore punishment is severe without considering mitigating circumstances. This theory advocates social policies that design criminal laws that are simple and unbiased. Moreover, punishment is swift and in accordance with the type of crime. Classical theorists consider all people as rational due to their free will, and believe that appropriate punishment will discourage people with no mental problems from committing further crimes. Similarly, people with psychological problems will not be affected by fear of punishment. Such limitation arises because classical theorists rely more on formal laws than informal concepts like self-restrain and social bonds (Vito & Maahs, 2011, p.71). 14. In classical theory, one major shortcoming is that it does not consider mitigating circumstances. It fails to look at social and economic factors of crime. It does not explain why crime is more prevalent in certain sections of society like among the poor or among the minorities. Moreover, punishment is designed only by considering the type of crime. If same punishment is given to a poor person who was first time offender then impact will be stronger while the same punishment can have lesser impact on an affluent person who is a seasoned criminal. According to neoclassical theorists, punishment must be rehabilitative. However, one drawback is that offenders may feel the need to re-offend if his social and economic position does not change post-imprisonment. References Baker, L.A., Tuvblad, C. & Raine, A. (2010), Genetics and Crime, pp.21-39, In McLaughlin E. & Newburn, T. (eds) The SAGE Handbook of Criminological Theory, SAGE Publications Bristow, W. (2011) Enlightenment, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved on November 11, 2014 from: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/ entries/enlightenment Collins, A.F. (1999) The Enduring Appeal of Physiognomy: Physical Appearance as a Sign of Temperament, Character, and Intelligence. History of Psychology, 2(4), 251-76 Driscoll, C. (2013) Sociobiology, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved on November 10, 2014 from: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2013/ entries/sociobiology/ Gabbidon, S.L. (2010) Criminological Perspectives on Race and Crime, Routledge Hagan, F.E. (2012) Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior, SAGE Publications Jones, C.M. (2005) Genetic and Environmental Influences on Criminal Behavior, Rochester Inst. of Tech., retrieved on November 10, 2014 from: http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/jones.html Knepper, P. (2012) An International Crime Decline: Lessons for Social Welfare Crime Policy? Social Policy and Administration, 46(4), 359-76 Shoemaker, D.J. (2013) Juvenile Delinquency, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Siegel, L. (2011) Criminology, Cengage Learning Silverman, R.A. et al. (2002) Criminal and Justice at the Millennium, Springer Theories of the Causes of Crime (2009), justice, retrieved on November 10, 2014 from: http://www.justice.govt.nz/justice-sector/drivers-of-crime/publications-and-background-information/documents/spb-theories-on-the-causes-of-crime Tibbets, S.G. & Hemmens, C. (2009) Criminological Theory, SAGE Publications Valla, J.M., Ceci, S.J. & Williams, W.M. (2011) The Accuracy of Inferences about Criminality based on Facial Appearance. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 5(1), 66-91 Vito, G. & Maahs, J. (2011) Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy, Jones & Bartlett Publishers Walklate, S. (2007) Understanding Criminology: Current Theoretical Debates, McGraw-Hill International Walsh, A. & Hemmens, C. (2010) Introduction to Criminology, SAGE Publications Read More