Characteristics of the Process of Data Collection in Interviews - Essay Example

?The Role of Interview Data in Qualitative Research: Characteristics of the Process of Data Collection in Interviews Introduction: A research can be described as an investigation, conducted for becoming “more aware” of a particular phenomenon and to “find meaning” of a certain experience, answering some questions or for finding the solution to a problem (Thorpe & Holt 2008:1). Researches are primarily carried out through methodologies, which mainly consist of the “choices” made regarding “cases to study, methods of data gathering, forms of data analysis” etc “in planning and executing” research studies (Silverman 2010: 15). Furthermore, methodologies are comprised of four main elements, namely, “a preference for certain methods, a theory of scientific knowledge, a range of solutions” and a clearly defined sequence of “procedural steps” (15). Though traditionally researches have been conducted by using two methodologies, such as quantitative and qualitative, a recent trend has emerged in the research paradigm, which is known as mixed methodology. Whereas quantitative research is related with “observations and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by other researchers,” qualitative research involves “attempts to increase” one’s understanding of “why things are the way they are in (the) social world” (Hancock 1998: 1). Quantitative research basically generates the answers to questions such as “how often or how many” and it has its origins in the field of natural sciences including “biology, chemistry, physics, geology” etc (1). On the other hand, qualitative research evolved from the field of social sciences, namely, “psychology, sociology, anthropology” and it deals with understanding “why people act the ways they do” (1). Thus earlier researches were limited to quantitative and qualitative research methodologies which were useful in their own light, but always had some demerits when compared with each other. Therefore, a new research methodology, that is, the mixed methodology, was developed, integrating the characteristics of these two, and which has come to be increasingly used in the present day world. Thus, the mixed methodology can be defined as a “research paradigm” that “encourages the combined use” of both “qualitative and quantitative research elements” in order to answer the research questions as well as carry out the purpose of the research (Heyvaert, Maes & Onghena 2011: 1). However, qualitative research techniques have far reaching implications, and thus they are still used as a differentiated method of study from that of quantitative research, so as to arrive at certain specific conclusions, which is not so easily possible through mixed methodology. Due to the fact that qualitative research is involved with “developing explanations of social phenomena,” it is becoming increasingly important as in the modern world, the focus is almost always on humanitarian elements in every field (Hancock, Windridge & Ockleford 2009: 7). Thus, a researcher needs to understand the significance of qualitative research when conducting researches and gathering data relevant to the topic at hand. Significance of Qualitative Research: The relevance of qualitative research is primarily evidenced through the “considerable increase in the number of studies in library and information science (LIS),” which make use of qualitative methodology (Meho 2006: 1284). Qualitative research consists of collection of data that is comprised of “words and observations” rather than its counterpart which involves “numbers” or statistical figures (Powell & Renner 2003: 1). As mentioned before, research methodology involves mainly four components, of which data analysis is a very challenging but highly important element. Data analysis or “content analysis” refers to the basic approach for “analysing and interpreting narrative data” (1). Thus, qualitative data analysis is related with describing and summarising “mass of words generated” through “interviews” and other “observational data” (Lacey & Luff 2001: 3). Researchers have developed various methods of data analysis as well as data gathering in terms of qualitative research, and as such, the constant evolution of such approaches brings to fore the fact that qualitative research is demanded highly and thus becomes increasingly important in the human sphere of life. Qualitative research regards with “opinions, experiences and feelings of individuals,” thus resulting in the attainment of “subjective data,” which help the researcher to understand the experiences that is shared to him or her by the subject people of the research (Hancock 1998: 2). In other words, qualitative researchers basically aim at “exploring, examining, and describing people and their natural environments,” and using the information so obtained to arrive at conclusions of their study (Orb, Eisenhauer & Wynaden 2001: 93). Contrary to quantitative research, which is a deductive approach, qualitative research involves evolving new theories and thus it is an inductive approach. It is important to test out theories that have been already laid down, and this is facilitated through quantitative research, however, without any theories available in the first place, testing of these theories cannot take place. Thus, it transpires that in order for quantitative research to exist, first theories need to be developed, and since they are developed through qualitative research, the latter’s importance gains larger prominence. On the other hand, in qualitative research there is no tampering with or manipulation of data as is the case with “experimental quantitative research,” and thus this type of research “describes social phenomena” naturally through different “holistic perspective(s)” (2). Therefore, this type of methodology is highly important when focusing on a specific group or a subgroup as generalised information cannot be accounted for each person under study. In qualitative research, narration and storytelling are the primary ways through which the people under study communicate their experiences with the researcher as well as make sense of themselves. These experiences, or text, or “narrative data,” which form the basis of information to be analysed in order to find out answers regarding the research question at hand, may “come in many forms” and also “from a variety of sources” (Powell & Renner 2003: 1). Qualitative research facilitates collection of important data that cannot be done through quantitative researching, and this data can be attained from “responses to open-ended questions, transcript from an interview or focus group, notes from a log or diary, field notes” etc (1). The relevance of qualitative research can be further signified through its use in addressing to research questions or topics that revolve around focus groups such as “ethnic groups” as well as “patient groups suffering from rare conditions” (Hancock, Windridge & Ockleford 2009: 7). For example, in order to understand the treatment Hispanic Americans received under different circumstances, it is irrelevant or not appropriate to interview whole of America, as the focus should just be on Hispanic Americans, rather than African Americans or White Americans, thus in such a case generalising will lead drawing of inaccurate conclusions. Furthermore, in addition to ethnic researches, qualitative research plays a highly significant role in the medical field, especially in terms of understanding patients, and thus developing more methods to make them better. Therefore, it becomes clear that qualitative research is greatly important in the modern world and that it has far reaching implications that make it a primary method of collection of data to derive solutions to research problems at hand. Method/Process: Qualitative data can be obtained from various methods or approaches and these mainly involve “notes/ observation, interview tapes and transcripts, newspaper clippings, personal journal” as well as “surveys/ questionnaires” (O’Connor & Gibson n.d: 64). Open ended questionnaires are basically one of the least time consuming as well as cost effective method to derive data from any number of people involved in the study. Surveys that consist of more open ended questions instead of closed ended questions or multiple choice questions generate more information as people are provided with space to elaborate and explain on their thoughts, opinions and feelings. However, there is the possibility that the participant may not fully express his feelings in such a questionnaire due to lack of assurance in terms of confidentiality as well as, he or she may feel that surveys are a waste of time. “Testimonials” are another method of collecting data and these can give rise to reactions in response to a specific programme in a “few words or lengthy comments” in person or through “written correspondence” (Powell & Renner 2003: 1). A significant method that is growing popularity among researchers in the process of data collection is interviews, that is, both individual interviews as well as group centred interviews like “discussion group or focus group interviews” (1). On one hand, interviews are greatly effective as they can gather large amount of information that is not possible through responses to questionnaires, however, on the contrary, interviews are highly expensive and time consuming. This is seen especially in terms of individual interviews, where the researcher has to travel to different places and conduct lengthy interviews. But it becomes evident that interviews produce relevant data in the form of “notes, a summary” of the interview or even “word for word transcript” (1). Group interviews involve “full transcripts” as well as “notes from a moderator or observer,” which thus ensure obtaining a good amount of data which can be used by the researcher to his advantage. Thus, despite the time and cost factor, interviews remain to be increasingly deployed as a data collection tool, which form an integral part of qualitative research. “Logs, journals and diaries” help to provide “structured entries or free flowing text” that are both useful for the researcher as long as such entries hold relevant information that the researcher is looking for (1). Researchers involved in qualitative research necessarily have to submerge themselves in field study, thus watching and listening closely to their subjects as well as observing various related factors of the environment as well. Such observations can be “recorded” in the form of “field notes or descriptive accounts” and thus later referred to when required (1). “Documents, reports and news articles” further form important data gathering tools as they provide reliable “published written material” that can be used by the researcher to evaluate data (1). Although these are secondary sources of data, fact remains that this kind of data, which is attained through reliable sources is indeed highly relevant in the research undertaken, especially in terms of popular accounts that have been provided by people in such articles. On the other hand, “stories” help in developing shared understanding between the researcher and the subject, thus giving rise to different perspectives about the events and situations, as well as “results of programme’s in people’s own words,” whereas “case studies,” which mostly include some of the above mentioned elements, also provide similar relevant information that can be used by the researcher (1). The Role of Interviews in Qualitative Research: As discussed previously, interviews form a fundamental part of the research methodology undertaken by researchers to uncover information and gather them so as to use it accordingly in order to address to his or her research questions. Interviews are capable of “capturing people’s responses in real space and time in the context of face-to-face interactions and strategically ‘focusing’ interview prompts based on themes” that are relevant to the research topic (Onwuegbuzie et al 2009: 2). Be it in qualitative research alone, or in mixed methodology, interview is an integral element that helps in the collection of required data in terms of specific information. Even within interviews, there are a wide variety of approaches that have “emerged” as a result of “diverse disciplinary perspectives” (Bloom & Crabtree 2006: 314). The main purpose of interviews in qualitative research is identified as to be able to “contribute to a body of knowledge that is conceptual and theoretical” as well as is “based on the meanings that life experiences hold for the interviewees” (314). Furthermore, interviews has become “closely associated with qualitative, human scientific research,” (Englander 2012: 13) thus providing “new insight into a social phenomenon” and allowing the interviewees to “reflect and reason” on different subjects in a better way than through “opinion polls or party manifestos” (Folkestad 2008: 1). For instance, in certain polls the question is related with if the public agrees or disagrees with a given decision taken by the government, however, the question does not resolve to find out the reason behind the agreement or disagreement. Thus, if the same question is asked to people during individual interview, not only will they say if they are for or against it, but also they will say why it is so and will further elaborate by giving examples of their experiences which shaped their present opinions. Thus, as qualitative research is “exploratory by nature,” it becomes clear that interviews are an essential part of the research methodology and that they cannot be avoided when trying to derive data regarding meanings and implications drawn by people out of their experiences (Baker & Edwards n.d: 5). Interviews are of basically three types, that is, “structured, semi-structured and unstructured” interviews, out of which unstructured or “in depth” interviews generate the most information for qualitative research (Hancock 1998: 10). Therefore, in terms of the information acquired through interviews, the fact remains that such information is highly important in order to answer the research questions of the researcher, and this is especially true when the research ethnic or other specific groups. Interviews give a first-hand account of experiences and also provide deep insight into the human mind under study, and this is necessarily impossible through other research methods or approaches. Therefore, the prominence of interviews in qualitative research is out of question, however, interviews do pose certain challenges to researchers. This is evidenced through the lack of characteristics such as “reliability, validity, generalizability and objectivity” in qualitative research as opposed to quantitative research (Sinkovics, Penz & Ghauri 2008: 689). Furthermore, Sinkovics contends that these concepts become “blurry” when it comes to qualitative research, and also, he contends that qualitative research should focus on “trustworthiness” and thus involve concepts such as “credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability” (689). Furthermore, the researchers should also consider the aspect of of how their results or conclusions could be wrong by considering “plausible alternative interpretations and validity threats” (Maxwell 2008: 216). In addition, it is also important that the information derived through interviews be valid, thus researchers always need to ensure “validity” in “qualitative interviews,” which is basically characterised through the “relationship between interviewer and interviewee” (Kuzmanic 2009: 39). However, this is a very difficult task, as it is not always possible to tell if the “meaning and narrative are constructed” at the time of the interview or if that is the reality (39). Therefore, in order to ensure such validity hand credibility of sources, after the process of data collection, the researcher needs to analyse properly all the data that has been collected. Process of Data Collection in Interviews: The methods of data collection have already been mentioned in detail, and no matter which method a researcher deploys, he or she basically is involved in the process of data collection which primarily consists of “noticing, collecting and thinking” about information that is relevant to the research (Seidel 1998: 2). The data collected from interviews is mainly based on the interview design, and there are at present three types of interview design, namely, “informal conversational interview, general interview guide approach and standardised open-ended interview” (Turner 2010: 754). In the process of collection of data in terms of interview, the first and foremost step is “transcription,” which may be in the form of “tape recorded interviews, video recordings” or handwritten notes taken down at the time of interview (Lacey & Luff 2001: 16). There are different methods for transcribing interviews and at the same time, the same interview can be transcribed in more than one way based on the researcher’s point of view and perspectives. The next step is to organise the data that has been collected, and this organisation of data is basically done so as to group data in “easily retrievable sections” (17). Under this step, interviews are given “pseudonyms or referred to by a code number” and furthermore, narrative data is “numbered using line or paragraph numbers,” which makes the data easy to understand whenever checked out in the process of research (17). After organising data, the researcher needs to familiarise himself with the data that has been collected, this means, he needs to watch or listen to the tapes of interviews over and over again, so that if he missed some aspects on the first time, it can be picked up in the consecutive playbacks. Next the researcher engages himself with a step called coding, which involves making codes for certain paragraphs or sections of the transcript so as to ensure that the confidentiality of the information is maintained when accessed by some other person as well as for better organisation. Code is a “word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute” for a section of the gathered data (Saladana 2008: 3). Coding is an important step and is followed by identifying themes, which makes use of recoding in order to “develop more well defined categories,” thus, completing the process of data collection (Lacey & Luff 2001: 20). Through the analysis of text, the researcher is encouraged to discover “themes and subthemes” as well as build “hierarchies of themes or code books” and link “themes into theoretical models” (Ryan & Bernard 2003: 85). Therefore through such analysis the researcher can better understand the data and use it precisely according to the requirements of his or her research. Analysis of Data Collected from Interviews: However, merely carrying out the process of data collection is not sufficient, the researcher needs to execute this process by ensuring that the key concepts of data collection are followed. That is, as mentioned before, the researcher needs to make sure that validity, reliability, practicability, sensitivity, economy etc are present in the process of gathering data from interviews. Validity holds that the criterion for research as well as the questions that research seeks to answer are valid, reliability means that the interview should be a reliable tool for gathering data, practicability and economy are related with how practical and cost effective conducting interviews are, and sensitivity relates with the ability to identify changes that are occurring, and which may affect the interviewee’s accounts. Therefore, the researcher needs to make sure that he analyses the method of data collection, that is, interview well enough before as well during collection of data. Another significant part of research is the process of analysis of data, which has been collected from the interviews. It is known that data analysis is a “complex and contested part” of qualitative research, and has “received limited theoretical attention,” however, that only points to the potential of the same (Casterle? et al 2011: 1). It is highly significant to analyse the data which has been derived so as to use them according to the research topic at hand as well as draw conclusions from them and answer all questions that needed exploration in the beginning. Data analysis is so relevant that there has always been a “well-established tradition” of conducting a “secondary analysis” of data that has been obtained through various sources, including the interviews (Sutehall, Sque & Hall 2010: 335). An important part of data analysis is “judging the quality of interviews,” however, this is difficult as a survey conducted on “qualitative interviewing” has uncovered that “there is no consistency” in terms of “assessment of quality” in qualitative interview researches (Roulston 2010: 201). Therefore, it becomes clear that despite the challenges in data analysis, it is an important part of research methodology and thus needs to be carried out appropriately. Conclusion: Interview forms an integral part of qualitative researches and thus is deployed in the present world in order to derive data from different kinds of sources. Qualitative research is related with narrative text, which provides information in terms of descriptions and narrations to the researcher, which in turn he or she uses to answer various questions involved with the respective research topic at hand. Interview is growing to be used as an inductive means for obtaining information from specific groups or focus groups thus helping the researcher to draw conclusions regarding the research undertaken. The process of data collection involved in terms of conducting interviews have also been discussed. Furthermore, the relevance of interviews have been addressed, as well as their demerits or challenges caused by them such as the cost factor and time consuming element have been explored. 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