Composition of Iliad and Odyssey - Essay Example

Composition of Iliad and Odyssey Metaphor, repetitions and epithet are literally devices to express, emphasize and bring a charm to one's oratory orwritings. Though they do have definitions but are loosely bound to any particular definition. If metaphors are repeated they can be termed as repetition as well, and so is the case with epithet. Metaphor is a way of emphasizing of praise or degrading someone by directly referring to the subject as something else. With a little change it could easily become a simile if we refer to our subject as like something else. Epithet on the other hand is like a nickname or a label, or an informal appellation. In the following pages an effort is made to see how successfully Homer has utilized these tools in his two great works. METAPHOR Aristotle wrote high of Homer's use of metaphors and yet the critics of early twentieth century deny the strength behind his metaphors. Moulton (1979, p.279-293) relates to Homeric Metaphor as a neglected feature in Homer's imagery. Moulton (1979, p279-293) considers that critics have focused attention on similes which are so prominent in Iliad and Odyssey. Parry (1933, p.30-43) had cited Aristotle to admit that the use of metaphor has served no other purpose for Homer than to show that he was great. Considering this to be coming from Aristotle is in itself an authentication, a proof, that Homer's use of metaphor has not gone unnoticed over the centuries. The reason that Homer's use of metaphor is still argued upon lies in the eminence of metaphoric literature and its use in epic poems and poetry, which is exceptional amongst other literary devices (Moulton, 1979; Parry, 1933). The awe-inspiring Iliad would not have been so awe-inspiring but rather would have seemed to a reader as monotonous and mundane. Though many critics agree there are only a few metaphors sustaining more than a single word. There is also an opinion that in times of Homer words were not defined as precisely as today and therefore the poet was cautious enough not to use multiple-words metaphor and hence, sacrifice clarity. Parry believes that 'Metaphor in Homer is a casual poetic device seldom used to heighten emotion or a crucial narrative incident'. The claim is further substantiated by the fact that a large number of lengthier metaphors are vague, leaving much room for the reader to form an isolated view of the narrative. Homer is also accused of using the same metaphors over and over again that they seem to lose the weight and are rendered ineffective. Critics have termed such metaphors as 'fixed' metaphors which have an eroded semantic force but yet not void of decorative charm (Keith, 1940; Parry, 1933). Parry (1933) has pointed out that Aristotle was at fault in praising Homer's metaphors in his article 'The Traditional Metaphor in Homer'. Though he does not deny the decorative charm they carry but admits that without the metaphors, however light they may be in carrying a meaning to the reader, the epic would have lost the charm. Clear and distinct languages, following the rules of grammar, languages over the years have now fallen in the category of exact-sciences. It is this exactness that fails us in understanding the real spirit behind metaphors and has incited argumentative issues. As there could be many interpretations of a dream so do metaphors. Davidson (1978, p.31-47) defines metaphor as the dream-work of language and state: '..like all dreamworks, its interpretation reflects as much on the interpreter as on as on the originator. The interpretation of dreams requires collaboration between a dreamer and a waker, even if they be the same person; and the act of interpretation is itself a work of the imagination. So too understanding a metaphor is as much a creative endeavor as making a metaphor, and as little guided by rules.' As such, metaphors in Homer are no form of exactness as there are no set of rules to devise a metaphor. Davidson (1978) further implies that there are no unsuccessful metaphors as there are no unfunny jokes. In his opinion, metaphors are a means to bring the poet closer to artistic success. In light of Davidson's opinion, Homer has succeeded in bringing the Iliad and the Odyssey, both, so close to artistic success that both his works have crossed the limits of literature and now fall in the category of 'Art'. Scientific approach and pure logic could never make a reader to comprehend Homer's metaphors. One needs philosophy and an aesthetic sense to understand and enjoy the metaphors of Homer. 'All slang is metaphor, and all metaphor is poetry', Chesterton (1901). 'The metaphor is probably the most fertile power possessed by man', Gasset (1948). The metaphor of dawn in Odyssey is a good example to understand Homer. It signifies Odysseus' journey from initial to final stage. It shows how Odysseus comes of age in matters of gaining an insight and knowledge about matters to overcome his obstacles. The "rosy-fingered dawn" depicts the beginning of journey. As the journey progresses the metaphor changes to "gold-throned dawn" and then to "bright-throned dawn". It is interesting to note that as Odysseus prepares himself to get rid of the suitors one again comes across "rosy-fingered dawn". Any mention of "rosy-fingered dawn" prepares the reader for yet another obstacle in the way of Odysseus. This metaphor is observed to be growing in degree as our hero progresses in his endeavor to overcome an obstacle. It is perhaps Homer's way of saying that gaining of knowledge is like the progression of the day. EPITHET In Homer, epithet is frequently observed to be attached with a person's or deity's name. "Swift-footed Achilles" and "cloud-gathering Zeus" are common examples to follow. It is not always supposed to carry a meaning and if it does than repetition of epithets over a number of times nullify whatever is tended to be communicated to the reader as the reader just passes over this text as the meaning is already known. Moreover, if it is intended to carry a different meaning than the previous occurrences then the reader is at loss to comprehend it. Lowenstam (1995, p.4-5) is of the opinion that besides the deceptive and superficial attractiveness the epithets, in Homer, are a source of providing significant information to readers, though readers may not agree to the degree of significance. He further states: 'but it must be the case that the value of the information added by a perpetual epithet tends towards zero, because we know later what we have been told earlier, and because the sense of a perpetual epithet must be, or become, wide enough to fit a variety of contexts.' The list of epithets in Homer is long, but for the sake of interest and to show that they can be helpful in describing the character, here are a few used to describe Achilles. 1. Son of Peleus 2. Swift-footed 3. god-like 4. Shepherd of the people 5. Leader of men Maybe, individually the above epithets might not carry the message but another look at all of them together does provide a good picture of the character. Ink & Henry (1944, p.229-231), while comparing Homer to another poet say about Homeric epithet: 'Neither of them uses epithets as established attributes, but rather, "to make a whole picture by themselves, without interrupting the movement of the poem by a long parenthesis, or burdening it with a formal description.' The popularity of Homeric style of epithet and its direct use has grown to the extent that Mr. Britton Hadden, co-founder of Time magazine, owned a copy of the Iliad in which all the compound epithets were underlined. This was also confirmed by the Time magazine editorial office (Ink & Henry). The members Time's staff were issued with "Phrases to remember" and "Phrases to forget", covering many of the Homeric epithets (Ink & Henry). REPETITION Out of the three literary devices the least analyzed by the critics is the repetition in Homeric style (Postlethwaite, 1979). Repetition in Homer is sometimes irritating and is so frequent that one grows immune with this repetition and after a while forgets about it. Therefore, where the repetition might require to be interpreted differently, it fails to do so (Lowenstam, 1995). Repetition of epithets is so frequent that a reader skips over it. The literary advantage gained by repetition is perhaps reaped by other poets and writers. Repetition serves for the repeated material to be established and gives latitude to other writers and to the author in some other wok to use the terms repeated without hesitation. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chesterton, G. K., (1901), The Defendant, Encarta Book of Quotations & (P) 1999 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Developed for Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Dee, J. H., Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-), Vol. 111. (1981), pp. 39-42. Available at: http://links.jstor.org/sicisici=0360-5949%281981%29111%3C39%3AI1FAC6%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q Frost, R., Test on The Odyssey,The English Journal, Vol. 52, No. 2. (Feb., 1963), p. 101. Available at: http://links.jstor.org/sicisici=0013-8274%28196302%2952%3A2%3C101%3ATOT%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U Gasset, J. O. Y., (1948), The Dehumanization of Art (1948). Encarta Book of Quotations & (P) 1999 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Developed for Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Ink, N. & ; Montgomery, H. C., The Homeric Epithet in Contemporary Literature, The Classical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 4. (Jan., 1944), pp. 229-231. Available at: http://links.jstor.org/sicisici=0009-8353%28194401%2939%3A4%3C229%3ATHEICL%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I Kirby, J. T., Aristotle on Metaphor , The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 118, No. 4. (Winter, 1997), pp. 517-554. Available at: http://links.jstor.org/sicisici=0002-9475%28199724%29118%3A4%3C517%3AAOM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O Lloyd N. Jeffrey, Homeric Echos in Byron's "Don Juan" , The South Central Bulletin, Vol. 31, No. 4, Studies by Members of SCMLA. (Winter, 1971), pp. 188-192. Available at: http://links.jstor.org/sicisici=0038-321X%28197124%2931%3A4%3C188%3AHEIB%22J%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N Lowenstam, S., Homeric Repetition, The Scepter and the Spear: Studies on Forms of Repetition in the Homeric Poems, The Classical Review, New Ser., Vol. 45, No. 1. (1995), pp. 4-5. Available at: http://links.jstor.org/sicisici=0009-840X%281995%292%3A45%3A1%3C4%3AHR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N Moulton, C., Homeric Metaphor, Classical Philology, Vol. 74, No. 4. (Oct., 1979), pp. 279-293. 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