Paying Special Concentration upon Consciousness - Essay Example

Module Module ID: Sociological Theories The present paper aims to eluci the developments the world had observed during the period from 1890 to 1910 in the psychological theoretical framework, which has left indelible impact of its thoughtfulness on the discipline for the future decades to come. The study will make a critical analysis of the theories of psychology articulated and presented by William James, Charles Horton Cooley and Morton Prince, while elaborating the concepts of self, consciousness, double consciousness and personality, and the influence of selfhood on personality as well as on the activities individuals get involved while performing various tasks and obligations at large. Hence, the paper will present a comparative investigation of the theoretical frameworks presented by the above-mentioned theorists by paying special concentration upon self and consciousness. The last decade of 19th century and first decade of 20th century are regarded to be one of the most fertile periods in respect of the growth and development of discipline of psychology (Coser 2003), which brought about remarkable progress in the field of psychology. It was the era during which most influential psychological theories were articulated defining and discussing the functions of mind and their relationship with personality growth and human attitude and behaviour as well. The hypotheses presented by all the three theorists, under-investigation, are also the product of the same era; the name and contributions made by Sir William James (1842-1910) also belong to the era discussed above. William James enjoys a significant place in the list of the most dominating and influential American philosophers of all times and areas without discrimination. By dint of his outstanding analytical approach and innate talent, he introduced new terms and notions in psychology, which have turned out to be extremely beneficial and supportive in respect of understanding the basic concepts including self, consciousness and personality in general (Allport 1961). He illustrious the Principles of Psychology (1890) has elaborated the experimental techniques in the discipline that not only obtained imperative popularity during the early part of 20th century, but also the concepts have been discussed in the magnificent work are still alluded and followed for the personality analysis, counselling, therapeutic treatments and for the exploration of the ideas and thoughts that prevail in human mind and urge the individuals to act, react and behave in some particular manner at some particular occasion in general (Menand 2001). In addition, his idea regarding the stream of consciousness also sought its way in global literary pieces, where the same could be traced in the works produced predominantly during the era between the Great Wars, where Virginia Woolf, James Joyce and other authors appears to be observing the same stream of consciousness through their protagonist characters articulated by William James (Daiches 2003). Stream of consciousness, according to the theorist, appears to be consists of the ideas in an imaginative mind that pave the way towards developing the chain of thoughts in their wake, and keep the conscious mind captured within the world of ideas, far away from the environment in which he is physically present and the part of the same as well, without having any external influence altogether. Consequently, these ideas are exclusively personal, which give a go to the flow of further thoughtfulness in human mind. First published in 1890, the Principles of Psychology discusses the nature and scope of the discipline and its association with human brain, and the thoughts prevailing in it as well. The author views feelings, desires, cognitions, reasoning and decisions etc as the reflections of the mind of a personality, which leaves a chaotic impression on the observer (James 19). It is therefore, assessment and estimation of the ideas flowing in a mind through the thoughts, desires and feelings, the mind carries appear to be the most dynamic principle of psychology. It is the same principle that introduces the concept of selfhood, which is also an outcome of the thoughts existing in the human consciousness (James 43). The consciousness, according to the theorist, appears to be of a teaming multiplicity of objects and relations since the day man enters the world, which could also be viewed to be simple sensations as well. These objects and relations are results of discriminative attention, and subsequently are pressed to a very high degree (Bauer, 2009). James further supports his notion by elaborating five characters essential for the development of thought, combination of which in sequence completes the process of thoughtfulness eventually. At first, he declares every thought as the part of one’s personal consciousness exclusively; secondly, every personal consciousness observes constant alterations in the thoughtfulness. Thirdly, the personal consciousness is not only always changing, but also looks to be continuous and uninterrupted one in nature. Fourthly, personal consciousness always looks entering into relationship with various objects existing all around quite independently; and finally, personal consciousness concentrates upon some parts of these objects to the exclusion of others, by accepting or rejecting the same among them absolutely on the basis of its choice (James 1890). In other words, personal consciousness is a state in which the individuals have developed ideas about various objects existing in the social environment. The personal consciousness contains various images regarding these objects, including the other humans as well, which are independent of the external influences and thoughts altogether, and hence are the products of one’s own mind, to which James views as personal consciousness. It is the personal consciousness that gives birth to the image of one’s self in the minds of the individuals (Ritzer 2007). While elucidating the notion self, James submits to state that the humans maintain the capacity of viewing themselves as objects. Moreover, the individuals also develop self-feelings and attitudes towards themselves. Hence, they contain the capability of denoting other individuals as well as the natural, social and physical phenomena existing all around them in a symbolical way. In addition, the humans subsequently develop attitudes and feelings towards almost all the objects all around them by constructing specific responses towards them in the light of their attitude and performance while entering into interaction with them. It eventually turns out to be supportive in denoting themselves, their self-feelings and attitudes, and create the responses towards themselves subsequently (Turner 1990). James is of the opinion that mind contains multiple thoughts simultaneously; among which, some of the thoughts are unconditionally the personal ones, and do not have any sharing with the views of others. As a result, these thoughts are independent ones in nature and scope, which give birth to ideas e.g. I think, I feel and others (James 228), contrary to the thoughts that are outcome of the influence of other individuals and objects on human mind. Since the individuals frequently enter into social interaction with others in order to fulfil their needs and desires, the thoughts and words of others certainly have their affects on the minds of individuals. It is the same influence that creates the concept of self in humans, and people come to know about their separate identity through the impressions and behaviour of others (Allport 134). Nevertheless, an essential part of one’s independent thoughts about oneself and others remain separate from the views of others, to which James declares consciousness. However, since the thoughts of others could not be excluded altogether from mind, it gives birth to the idea of double consciousness in its nature and scope. Thus, double consciousness appears to be the amalgamation of an individual’s personal views about himself and others, as well as the influence of the attitudes and opinions of others on his mind at large. Consequently, the individual develops two different concepts of self in mind, which are the product of innate thoughtfulness on the one hand, and man’s interaction with his social environment on the other; it creates the concept of double consciousness in its wake, where the individuals have to preserve two different identities in mind- first his innate views about self, and second, the opinion of others about him. These views could be either positive or negative or both. For instance, a member of African American community could have very good and positive opinion about himself and his community members, though collectively they are the victim of the prejudice of the majority of white racial group (Parks 1999). The black communities, in particular, have had instances of inter-racial discrimination, whereby lighter-skinned blacks have received preferential treatment over their darker-skinned counterparts (Kerr 2005). The same is the feelings of the blacks about whites. Moreover, the people belonging to same-sexual preferences view themselves as free and independent individuals, though the straight people declare them to be perverts. Since the homosexuals are well aware of the views of the straight people about them, there could appear the probabilities of double consciousness in their minds i.e. their innate feelings about them, and the opinions of other regarding their personalities. Such type of prejudice is not confined to one area or region; rather, the same discriminative behaviour has been in vogue in even the most enlightened and developed countries of the world including the USA and UK (Kenan 2008).The similar dual feelings could also be observed while performing professional and social obligations at large. Consequently, the concept of self appears to be reflective one, which grows in the light of the views and opinions of others about an individual (Theo, 2008). Hence, James has evaluated the concept of self and personality growth by making an in-depth psychological investigation of human mind; the similar ideas have also been discussed by James’ contemporary theorist C H Cooley in his famous theory of self. Renowned US sociological theorist Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) has articulated his Looking Glass Self Theory in 1902, where he views the growth of a personality as the outcome of the interaction of the individuals with various social phenomena existing all around them. The humans develop the concept of self in the light of the perception other people maintain about them. Hence, society serves as the looking-glass or mirror for the individuals, through which the individuals get acquaintance with their own self. This concept of self eventually grows in the light of the views of others about one’s self or personality, and determines the mode of one’s activities during his interaction with others. Hence, social interaction plays vital role in deciding and determining the concept of self in humans, according to Cooley (Ritzer 2007). It is therefore, people demonstrate different attitudes and patterns of behaviour at different occasions and situations as well as while interacting with different people. The behaviour people observe at various social situations is actually dependent of the nature of the previous interaction the individual has experienced while dealing with some particular person. Hence, it is social interaction that guides the individuals in respect of acting and reacting at divergent situations and with different people (Macionis 2007). For instance, man observes obedience and respect while interacting with his parents, teachers, elders and bosses; on the other hand, the same person looks frank, free and blunt during his interaction with close friends, peers and lovers. Similarly, the individual adopting extreme modesty and humility during his church attending appears to be participating in the hip-hop and excitement at a ball, dance hall or other similar place and state of affairs as well, which exhibits diversity of ideas and thought flowing into human mind, and deciding the mode of behaviour one is looking for adopting in different situations. As a result, it is society from which the individual learns the patterns of behaviour. This image presents the picture in the sub-conscious of mind, and man acts, reacts and behaves with the others keeping in view the established patterns of actions he had experienced in past at specific time and occasion. Since the elders deal the individual in the manner that require and look for respect and formal behaviour, the individual keeps these manners in mind, and adopts the same during his interaction with the people he has learnt to practice the same (Macionis 407). In addition, it aptly happens that humans adopt quite different attitude with the same people at different occasions; as the family members gathered at marriage ceremony exhibit their enchanting behaviour and delight, though the same individuals mourn and console one another at the eve of funeral services. The entire developments they adopt in their activities are learned ones in nature from the cultural fabrics and social establishment. As a result, man’s actions and reactions are entirely dependent of the expectations others have developed in their minds for him (Turner 1990). All these thoughts and views are preserved in mind constantly, and become an essential part of consciousness gradually. The concept of self, according to Cooley, is a social process by which the individuals are in a position to see themselves as objects, along with other humans and objects, existing within the same environment (Turner 314). He further extends his notion by stating that self always merges out in the wake of the individual’s interaction with others. Hence, Cooley appears to be taking the argument different from James, which takes innate thoughts as vital in respect of determining the concept of self. Hence, innate characteristics look vital for James, though they are secondary ones but vital in the eyes of Cooley. The theorist also signifies the gestures and expressions as very important ones, which alarm the individuals about the feelings of others about his one or more acts. Hence, man attempts to adapt his behaviour by noticing the pleasant and unpleasant gestures the people demonstrate in order to prove or disapprove his behaviour. Since the acts of other people certainly force the individual to bring changes in his attitude and acts, the self appears to be dependent of the reaction of others, and hence determine and decide the ideas flowing in the minds of the individuals as the member of social environment. Hence, human feelings and sentiments appear to be the reflection of the attitude of others, and shape the self under the influence of society. Thus, Cooley has applied limitations on the theory of self articulated by James, where the former particularly lays stress upon the affects of symbolic interaction on mind and self subsequently. It is actually one or more sets of behaviour adopted by the members of society, which bring order and coherence within a social establishment. Hence, the social norms, cultural values and traditions also appear to be the product of the collective behaviour followed by the overwhelming majority of humans in society (Theo 131). As a result, deviation from the socio-cultural patterns of behaviour is frequently declared to be perversion from the social norms prevailing in society. James (1902) has defined self in the manner, where an individual experiences the feelings of me and mine etc. Contrary to the argument made by James, Cooley (1902) is of the view that the individual and society do not exist separately, but rather one is the product of the other. He contended that the self and society do not denote separable phenomena (1902:37). It is therefore, the individuals make assessment of themselves through the eyes of other people, even to the extent of incorporating their views of them into their own self-concept (Morris 2009); George Herbert Mead has also elucidated almost the same in his theory of self by arguing that humans are the organisms that seek to find a niche in which they could witness adaptability under somewhat favourable circumstances (Turner 319). Another illustrious US psychologist-sociologist Morton Prince (1854-1929) has also defined the concept of self in his work the Dissociation of Personality. Being a physician by profession, Prince was interested in exploring the symptoms, causes and consequences of dissociative disorders among the individuals. Hence, he views the mental condition as dependent of flow of ideas on the one side, and attitude of other members of society on the other in creating and augmenting the feelings of dissociation and alienation in individuals. As a result, Prince looks interested in exploring the case history and past life of the individuals in order to find out to the causes that have influenced their mind in such a manner that has created disorder in a personality. It is Prince, who coined the notion multiple personality, where he seeks the existence of many individuals in one single personality, where he declares external factors to be very important in developing various feelings in humans leading to the formation of personality. Karl Roger, in his distinguished Theory of Self, has also argued that one of the most fundamental motives common in almost all humans is self-actualization or urge to achieve the highest level of human-beingness. Hence, self-actualization is the product of man’s interaction with society; consequently, it could be both constructive and destructive in nature, and may turn man haughty, proud and aggressive, as well as meek, submissive and disenchanted in its wake in the pursuit of seeking ideal or perfect state of affairs in the light of the expressions, impressions and behaviour of other members of society (Coon & Mitterer 2012). Somehow, the individuals do not act and react absolutely in the light of the expressions or commands of others, even the prevailing social norms. On the other hand, they also establish their concept of self in accordance with their innate thoughts and feelings, where no interruption could be allowed altogether. As a result, it not only creates impediments on the way of accepting change in personality, but also produces and promotes dissociative feelings in humans (Prince 37). Prince is of the view that the individuals experience identification of self during their initial years predominantly out of the same innate flow of ideas depicted by James. Self-conception and estimation, according to Craig & Baucum (2002), appear soon after the individuals celebrate their first birthday, and the affects of the first images of self-discovery are long-lasting ones, which seldom perish throughout one’s lifespan. Prince has also divided personality into the categories of primary and secondary ones, where both of which look different from each other during an individual’s interaction with others. Secondary personality conceals many features of primary personality, and thus does not represent the whole of the physical life of an individual (Prince 6-7), which is actually because of the developments being made in the consciousness. Hence, his concept of double consciousness looks different from the one elaborated by James and Cooley in their theories. Contrary to both these theorists, Prince views brain as the double organ carrying conscious and subconscious in it; where the former appears to be having more powerful influence of the outer world than the latter, and acts accordingly according to the prevailing norms and values. Somehow, whenever the individual looks for the fulfilment of his desires existing in his sub-conscious, and are against the values an overwhelming majority of his social fabric follows, he observes dissociative feelings that appear to be similar to the alienation from the members of his society. The theorist declares high self-esteem as an important personality trait, which not only reflects high confident level and superior self-assessment, but also is extremely essential for making accomplishments in life. Nevertheless, the high self-esteem is seriously discouraged because of dissociative feelings, leading the individuals towards the unpleasant state of disappointment, dejection and inferiority complexes at large. Self-esteem undergoes severe shock in the wake of estranged behaviour the members of society apply towards the individuals, which force them get dissociated with the in-group they belong to. Prince explains his theory by citing the identity of Sally Beauchamp, the child who had lost her mother at a young age, and was subsequently become victim of the cruelty and hard-handedness of her widowed father. Frequent torture exercised by her father dissociated her from the family she belonged to, and she experienced alienation from her family, the most basic one among the social institutions (Rosenzweig 1987). The entire physical developments, observed by the individuals at large, according to the theorists, are dependent of the self, which, with the help of its image in the sub-conscious, guides the individuals in respect of performing an act or abstaining from the same in one way or the other. Consequently, all the parts of human body act on the commands made by the sub-conscious, and experience the socialization process with the help of the same image of self. However, development of self relies of pure innate ideas float in brain on the one hand, and as the outcome of the influence of attitude and behaviour of others towards an individual on the other. The same is also applied to the concepts of double and multiple consciousness(es) in general. Double consciousness particularly appears while analysing the minds of the minority groups living and interacting with the mainstream population. It is therefore, the minority communities including blacks and homosexuals are taken in the researches in order to explore various aspects of the theory of double consciousness presented by James, Cooley and Prince separately and independently. To conclude, it becomes evident that all the three theorists under discussion have articulated almost similar ideas and notions about self, consciousness and personality. Nevertheless, there are slight differences among the three. William James considers self as the product of both innate ideas and their continuous flow, which gives identity to self by entering into interaction with other members of society. On the other hand, Cooley has associated his concept of self with the views social establishment provides to a personality about it. Hence, the flow of ideas and formation of self appears to be predominantly influenced by social fabrics, including the prevailing social norms and cultural values, which pave the way towards the personality development and views. Similarly, Prince looks for attributing the consciousness with his dissociation theory, where the individuals witnessing abhorring and violent behaviour from society turn out to be least interested, unresponsive and indifferent from in-group and the community or society they have been associated with. Renowned sociologist William Graham Sumner submits to state that every individual maintains the feelings of prejudice for the in-groups, while demonstrates displeasure and indifference for the out-groups. Somehow, feelings of dissociation leave such a negative impact upon the individuals that the same feelings of dissociation, associated with the out-groups, start arising in the minds of the individuals for their in-groups in the wake of violence and injustices. It is therefore, the black community experienced the state of alienation for several decades during their living in the USA as a minority group, which was looked down upon by the mainstream society. Hence, the era between 1890 and 1910 is rightly stated to be the most productive one in respect of the birth of such exquisite and remarkable developments made in the area of socio-psychological theoretical formations. 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