Introduction to Enlightenment - Essay Example

Enlightenment Introduction Enlightenment refers to a freely structured intellectual progress that is worldly, rationalist, broadminded, and uncensored in point of view and values. It thrived in the central decades of the 18th century. The name was self-bestowed, and the vocabulary of obscurity and luminosity was equal in the chief European dialects. It was described as Enlightenment by English linguists, Siecle des lumieres by the French, Illuminismo by Italians, and Aufklarung by Germans and Austrians. Though it was global in scale, its core of gravity was sourced from France, which took on an exceptional control in the European scholar life (David 26). Symbolically, the particularly most renowned informative article regarding the Enlightenment was France’s Thesaurus of the sciences, arts, and vocations, which was a immense compendium of hypothetical and realistic comprehension. It was condensed in Paris by Jean Le Rond d'Alembert and Denis Diderot. Nevertheless, the internationalism of the Enlightenment was authentic. Immanuel Kant, a German admirer of the two writers, fashioned the most agreeable definition of the faction. In a legendary article in 1784, he described enlightenment as the liberation from self-incurred teaching, and affirmed that its slogan should encourage people to dare to learn (Dorinda 34). Writers and analysts allied to the Enlightenment were undoubtedly capable of philosophical criticism regarding the subject. However, the general definition of Kant regarding knowledge as liberation is what allows the society to perceive it as a unified movement among intense multiplicity (Dorinda 53). This paper seeks to expound the whole issue of Enlightenment. Further, it seeks to study the use of Enlightenment in feminism in order to acknowledge and, thus, comprehend the various publications that women offered during its period. As a case study, it expounds on the use of Enlightenment in Jane Austen's 'Persuasion' and Maria Edgeworth's 'Belinda'. Origin of Enlightenment In a long-lasting viewpoint, Enlightenment is considerably the third and final segment of the collective process through which European thinking and scholarly life was restructured in the early stages of the contemporary period. Its connection to the two previous stages in this progression, the Renaissance and the Reformation, was paradoxical. In a way, the Enlightenment signified both their implementation and their termination (David 53). As the neoclassical structural design and republican political principles of the late eighteenth century exhibited, respect and appreciation for classical relic persevered all through the era. Nonetheless, the Enlightenment era was evidently the instant at which the enchantment of the Renaissance, which was the certainty of the utter superiority of primeval over modern evolution in the West, was broken for all time (Dorinda 49). The Enlightenment insurrection in opposition to the intellectual and literary influence of Christianity was more spectacular. Consequently, the Protestant evaluation of the Catholic Church, which was damned for the maltreatment of its members through ideological fantasy, was encompassed to Christianity, up to the religious conviction as a whole. This is what Kant implied by the emancipation from self-incurred tutelage at the core level. According to a section of learned Europeans, the Enlightenment manifested the instant at which the two most authoritative foundations of scholarly clout in Europe, the Greco-Roman and the Judeo-Christian were resolutely overthrown (Dorinda 77). This massive intellectual freedom was realized through numerous factors. The chief philosophers of the Enlightenment were very lucid about the contiguous origins of their own thoughts, which they habitually traced approximately to the publications of a group of forgers from the mid-17th century. Initially, among these were scholars that are now connected with the scientific revolution (David 74). A major figure was the English physicist, Isaac Newton, who became the entity of an enormous cult of adoration in the 18th century. Hardly less significant were scholars who are more classically classified as philosophers currently. They include the chief figures of the rationalist and the empiricist customs, and included Descartes, Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm on one side, and Bacon, Hobbes, and Locke on the other (Dorinda 96). Equally privileged were the originators of the modern natural rights conjecture in political deliberation. They included Grotius, Hobbes, Locke, and Pufendorf. These academicians did not consider themselves as affianced in a universal enterprise as did their descendants in the Enlightenment. However, they shared the utter novelty of their thoughts, which included the enthusiasm to quit from tradition in one sphere of thought after another. Dutch and English professionals controlled these fields. The reason behind this occurrence was that, in Europe, the United Provinces and England were the two chief regions in which divine-right totalitarianism had been effectively defeated or conquered. The ideological expression of the Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) and the English insurgencies (1640–1660, 1688) continued being primarily religious. As a result, their success enabled the existence of a scale of freedom of thinking and expression that was non-existent anywhere else in Europe. The effect was to lay the academic fundamentals for the Enlightenment, which can be described as the progression through which the most sophisticated thought of the 17th century was factionalized and disseminated in the course of the 18th century (David 105). Topography and Timeframe Having served the grand pioneers and predecessors in the 17th century, neither the United Provinces nor England was to take part in a central role in the actual Enlightenment issue. However, the regions provided the essential staging ground for the central practical industry of the faction, which was the publication of books. During most of the period, Amsterdam and London, in conjunction with the cities and states of another precinct of relative liberty and autonomy, Switzerland, were home to the chief publishers of the Enlightenment, scores of who focused in the publishing of books for covert distribution in the France region (Dorinda 217). The French nation was the primary manufacturer and digester of freethinking journalism in the 18th century, and took up a controlling position in the faction that was only similar to Italy’s Resurgence, or Germany’s Restoration. The reasons for this principality were the unique situation of France among the bigger set of European states at the end of the 17th century. At the culmination of the long sovereignty of Louis XIV in 1715, Catholic-inundated France was left by far the most dominant absolute dominion in Europe. Nevertheless, it was one whose geopolitical aspirations had evidently been frustrated by the growing of two minor, post-absolutist Protestant regions, the United Provinces and the Great Britain. The secluded sources of the French Enlightenment can be accurately traced to the instant that the sense of having been surpassed by Dutch and English adversaries became conspicuous. The principal intermediary effort, the French Protestant Bayle's Significant and chronological dictionary, was printed from Dutch banishment in 1697. As the Enlightenment outspread in France, the persistence of worldwide opposition remained essential (David 213). The key texts of its early stage, Montesquieu's Lettres persanes and Voltaire's Lettres philosophiques both exhibited up a vital mirror to what was now in France hypothesized as despotism. It depicted an invented Muslim one in the first one, and a very factual English mirror in the second one (Siskin 101). The grave edge of the Encyclopedie was the communal enterprise that described and controlled the French Enlightenment at its climax, and it came from a still further imperative sense that academic rejuvenation was a matter of nationwide precedence. This was effectively demonstrated in a very dramatic manner by the extent of the French rout in the Seven Years' War. The final years of the French Enlightenment experienced the materialization of a distinguishing school of a political financial system, whose function was to discover effective ways of reinstating the fiscal and political fates of France, while facing stiff British competition. French and Scottish thoughts were passionately clinched in the English outposts of North America, and, with a trivial holdup, in the Spanish and Portuguese protectorates in the South. As it was in France and Scotland, this was fundamentally an impulsive development, being the effort of an autonomous intelligentsia, notwithstanding that a number of the chief figures of imposing enlightenments rapidly became government officials themselves. In the eastern side of Europe, by disparity, where the main supreme monarchies now achieved their ripeness, the Enlightenment inclined to pull in with royal sponsorship (Roy 32). This was through Frederick’s appointment of Voltaire, and Catherine’s of Diderot and in addition, the Polish aristocracy’s searching of counsel from Rousseau. These were the mainly famous signals of what came to be referred to as enlightened tyranny. All in all, the final blossoming of the Enlightenment as an entity happened in Germany, where it discovered a theoretical accomplishment in Kant's established viewpoint, concluded throughout the years that the French kingdom succumbed to the upheaval that ruined the European Old administration in totality. Notions: harmony and discrepancy The Enlightenment in no way offered itself as a lone hypothetical structure or unitary ideological principle. At the least, the requirements of adjusting to diverse state contexts made harmony of that type highly improbable. However, the multiplicity of its thoughts was not endless. The superlative method to tackle them is conceivably according to a succession of spheres of thought or problematic areas, in which a definite general agreement, frequently pessimistic, can be discerned, in concert with a important scale of differences of judgment. Religion It is definitely the case that the bulk of supporters of the Enlightenment shared an academic dislike to theism in its innate forms. Detailed items of censure included the conviction in phenomenon and other varieties of divine intercession, the status given to the Holy Scripture, and the assertions regarding the spirituality of Jesus. Meanwhile, the majority of Enlightenment scholars considered the conventional churches, Catholic and Protestant, as drivers of institutional misuse and repression. Antagonism toward theism and a universal anticlericalism did not nevertheless prevent a mammoth multiplicity of attitudes in the direction of the mystic and the sacred among supporters of the Enlightenment. Straightforward atheism did certainly make its open unveiling in Europe in the 18th century. However, this was a marginal situation. The majority of enlightened attitude opted for the conciliation of deism or ordinary belief, which had the fervent support of Newton himself Science The Enlightenment breakthrough or creation of science, in this approach, owed all to the design of a heroic era of scientific accomplishment just before it, in the advancement of contemporary astronomy and physics from Copernicus through to Newton (Roy 20). However, considering all of the standing that is currently affiliated to science, it would be a delusive to embellish the conformity throughout the Enlightenment with consideration to either its techniques or results. The theoretical legacy from the 17th century was too much diverse for that. The final theorist of the Enlightenment, Kant, explained a disordered combat zone, separated ontologically between avariciousness and impracticality, and epistemologically between lucidness and empiricism. Politics One of the chief accomplishments of the initial Enlightenment was the popularization and detailing of this practice through a nonstop array of conversions, synopses, and remarks. By the mid 18th century, the fundamental conceptual terminology of the accepted rights tradition had penetrated the conventional Enlightenment political reflection, which encouraged the conviction that the only rightful foundation of political influence was sanction. However, past this basic concurrence about legitimacy, the realistic essence of Enlightenment political contemplation was extremely diverse. Only Rousseau really produced a hypothesis of republican authenticity, except in an outline so completely democratic as to prohibit its widespread approval before the age of the French insurgency. According to realistic politics, many Enlightenment theorists accepted a practical accommodation with dominion, and instead hunted the agenda of proto-liberalism, which focused on realizing civil autonomies of various types (Schmid 41). Social science In the meantime, the most prominent work of political conjecture of the Enlightenment abandoned the accepted rights theory totally. In ‘1748; The spirit of the laws’, Montesquieu publicized a universal nomenclature of state-forms, separating the planet into a West that had experienced a conversion from the military republics of the distant past to the business monarchies of contemporary Europe, and an East subjugated by static autocracy (Margaret 112). A subsequent cohort of French and Scottish intellectuals then urbanized Montesquieu's heritage in two diverse instructions. One was the variety of speculative history, which traced the chronological improvement of societies during precise socioeconomic periods. The other bearing was toward a wholly new social discipline of political financial systems. However, in the lines of academic historians and opinionated economists, there was considerable divergence regarding the political and ethical outcome of their conclusions. Imaginative literature Since inception, poems, inventions, and theater granted normal conveyance for the publicizing of Enlightenment thoughts (Schmid 89). It is very conspicuous that the two mainly lasting works of inventive literature of the French Enlightenment seem dull in perspective. Its original work, Montesquieu's Letters, is a severe parable regarding the fatal dangers of the chase for information and autonomy. Voltaire's novella, Candide (1759), obviously the most widely read 18th century publication currently, is a scathing spoof on the buoyancy of theoretical rationalism. In contrast, Wolfgang Mozart's delayed operas, barely less fashionable to modern audiences, suggest a markedly sunnier logic of vital Enlightenment ideas, ranging from the guttural festivity of social and sex egalitarianism in Figaro (1785; The matrimony of Figaro), to the dignified presentation of a modern Freemasonry Zauberflote (1791; The magical flute). In actual sense, the matrimony of Figaro can be considered as an insignia of Enlightenment cosmopolitanism, as the provocative play on which it is founded is the production of a French Protestant enthusiast of the American insurrection,. In addition, an Italian Jew provides its libretto, while its creator is an Austrian Freemason. Restructuring and revolt The Enlightenment’s development as an intellectual faction concurred with the beginning of a phase of opinionated revolts that ended, after a half-century of societal seizure and conflict, with the annihilation of the Old administration of early contemporary Europe. Numerous scholars have emphasized the realistic plunge of the Enlightenment appraisal of biased, social, and spiritual foundations, which definitely seemed to communicate a yearning, not only to analyze, but also to transform the planet. Meanwhile, it also appears clear that the fundamental direction of this censure was reformist and not activist. No chief Enlightenment theorist ever supported insurrection, in the logic of a deliberate change of political organization, even by diplomatic means. Generally, the realistic opinionated forces of the Enlightenment were dutiful to a more reserved plan of ends, which included the getting of a set of indispensable civil liberties. in the eastern region of Europe, this was basically a matter of depicting the imperative of divine-right totalitarianism as more lucid and competent. In the West, trials in the sensible use of Enlightenment ideas, including the efforts to free the grain business in France, motivated by Physiocracy, inclined to be short-lived catastrophes (Schmid 167). The academic heritage of the enlightenment Generally, the enlightenment can be deemed to have accomplished in altering the world in a similar fashion as the Resurgence and the Restructuring previously had. It did this by the intricate intertwining of intentional and inadvertent effects. As a whole, the immense issues and fervors of the Resurgence and the Restructuring have already ebbed into history, as their success canceled out their authenticity. Enlightenment Feminism In numerous ways, the place of women was gravely tainted all through the Enlightenment. Fiscally, the advent of free enterprise produced edicts that ruthlessly limited women's rights to own assets and run trade. This was unjust and very chauvinist of the way Enlightenment philosophers considered the difference between women and men due to gender. Only because of a woman’s gender, she could only wed if she was part of a family unit, and the family would frequently offer the dowry. If she had no family then she had acquire sufficient cash to pay her own gift. However, this didn’t end at marriage. Not only were they treated as only maids and wives, but also, with their meager income, they were obligated to spend towards the household financial system before she could link with it. If she was born into a farming society or in an artisan's family, they started work as industrious employees in the family financial system at the age of six. On the farmhouse women's labor was slightly valued, and women nearly always left residence from the ages of eleven to fourteen to either labor on another ranch or become a servant in a home. Women were made virtual slaves as they were regarded far more mediocre than men, who essentially got the superior education. Enlightenment academics also supposed that the different intellectual subjects including knowledge and philosophy were destined only for men. Thus, whilst men were learning the novel sciences and philosophies, women only got decorative accomplishments education. Those times were morally wrong since the Enlightenment, however, emphasized the utter importance of learning for moral growth and the ideal maneuver of society. Furthermore, this learning was only accessible to affluent women who could manage to pay for it. This era was very vicious and unjust to women (Schmid 203). The land of the feminist faction is jumbled with negation and generational dispute where the subsequent wave feminists of the 60’s and 70’s eras and the third wave feminists, who could be regarded as the modern feminism, oppose each other. Through messages of impartiality and sexual autonomy straddling generations, the meaning of each has faded. The “aged” feminism considers itself s discarded, and thus opposes the new product of “feminism” as a class of anti-feminism that is ruining all its accomplishments. The “novel” feminism has a concept of “girl power” and a sexual liberty that is constantly mounting and all encircling. The “fresh” feminism grips sexualization as an outline of empowerment (Margaret 154). As feminism has advanced, the standards and viewpoints have grown puzzling and opposing. The “previous” feminism deems the “latest” feminism as a kind of anti-feministic faction that has misled a age bracket into considering that they have control when, in reality, they’re just being controlled by the patriarchal culture. Conversely, the current generation deems the “older” feminists as those who symbolically castrated men to demonstrate their strength and supremacy. In the “aged” feministic days, feminism was an interest crowd that had real inspiration and power backing it since there was much sexism and deprived civil autonomies that were certain through the Constitution. The “novel” feminism relaxes in the days of “after-feminism” benefitting from the rights their ancestors fought for, taking pleasure in a new type of empowerment. Civilization and feminists themselves quarrel and challenge one another on what the actual feminist faction consists of in the 21st century. Enlightenment feminism in Jane Austen's 'Persuasion' Eight years of bliss is the cost that Anne Elliot pays for complying to a friend's counsel in Jane Austen's book ‘Persuasion’. Subsequent to being advised by her closest ally, Lady Russell, the 19-year-old Anne calls off her commitment to Captain Wentworth, the man she loves intensely. Lady Russell's dispute is ingrained in the tough class-awareness of the Regency-period British aristocracy. She views a hookup with a youthful marine officer without associations or fiscal aspirations to be below a baronet's spawn like Anne. According to Anne, the verdict is less condescending and more reasonable, as she discovers the perils of dedicating at that immature age to a man of such doubtful predictions based on sentiments only. Though Anne is swayed that calling it off is the sane and realistic choice, she keeps her affection for Wentworth, and soon discovers that her faith in him was not groundless as she sees him attain triumph and affluence whilst her own family's funds ebb. Anne and Wentworth finally join up, although only after eight years of possible pleasure are lost (Schmid 203). Kant, the philosopher, identified Enlightenment as man's surfacing from his self-incurred juvenile behavior. Under this classification, Anne Elliot comes out top beyond all other individuals in Persuasion according to the custom of the Enlightenment. She is levelheaded and cogent, and whilst not blatantly hypercritical, she confidentially probes numerous social principles and viewpoints that her associates assume as the truth. Whilst her father and sisters suppose that it a social stipulation to sustain the noble lifestyle regardless of their escalating debt, Anne proposes that they try to manage without servants, domestic animals and all other vanities in order to reimburse their creditors. In the story, Anne’s every emendation has supported honesty in favor of significance and importance. Though the thought of resorting to such extreme measures is embarrassing to the smugness of her father, Sir Elliot, Anne disclaims her societal class's principles of conceit. Her own values of pride focus more on individual responsibility and obligation than on community configurations and pedigrees. Similarly, whilst Anne's father Sir and sister, Elizabeth, grovel for the goodwill of the Lady Dalrymple, Anne decides to relate with the widow Mrs. Smith, whom others consider to be underneath them, but whom Anne views as much superior company. Anne is not only indifferent to titles, but is also embarrassed by her family's keenness to connect with Lady Dalrymple and Miss Carteret. Kant and other Enlightenment academics fronted for persons to make their own judgments rather than blindly supporting societal convention. This is exactly the character of Anne (Jane 32). An additional Enlightenment theory that is obvious in ‘Persuasion’ is the conviction in the innate egalitarianism amid men, an impartiality that goes beyond the limits of class. Thomas Paine exhibited this notion in ‘Rights of Man’, where he details the irrationality of inherited succession. Paine fronts that since knowledge and decree ability are not heritable, it is dictatorial and vain to maintain a ruling class. According to him, aristocracy is sustained by family despotism and prejudice. Paine explains that since men are equivalent in their ordinary rights in spite of birth, the sole communal differences should be based on civic usefulness, which means that individuals mainly fit to decree should do so, and not those that are born in the title holding family. Anne Elliot demonstrates her credence in this standard in her rejoinder to her father's moribund financial state. Whilst the other family members desire to hang onto the class signs of their aristocracy, Anne disputes that they ought to relinquish their property if they cannot appropriately administer it. Though Anne was really apologetic and embarrassed for the inevitability of the deduction, she felt that the property was gone into the hands of those who deserved it, and as a result, Kellynch Hall had gotten into better hands than its previous owners’ had. Moreover, a debate of the existence of Enlightenment observations in regard to Persuasion is succinctly augmented by the assessing of the promising authority of Mary Wollstonecraft. In her significant output, ‘A Vindication of the human rights of Woman’, printed about 26 years before ‘Persuasion’, Wollstonecraft decries against the prejudice of a culture that downgrades women to being badly informed and expressive rather than as cogent beings. According to her, their sanity is swollen, and their comprehension is neglected, resulting to their being made servants. One of the ‘Persuasion’s liberal-minded women, Sophia Croft, utters a similar row when conversing with Wentworth, who is her brother. She tells him that she loathes to listening to him talking like a fine man, as if, to him, all women were fine ladies instead of coherent beings. The cogent characters of Sophia and Anne are highlighted by the horde of silly, poignant, and coquettish humorous foils that enclose them (Jane 69). Even though Austen never listed Wollstonecraft as a persuasion, biographers have fronted that it is probable that she was aware of Wollstonecraft and her thoughts. Though it is factual that Wollstonecraft was a radical academic while Austen was conventional, ‘Persuasion’ still augments Wollstonecraft's conviction in shrewdness for both women and men (Irvin 73). Enlightenment feminism in Maria Edge worth’s 'Belinda' Edgeworth narrates the story of Belinda Portman, who is a youthful female that is sent by her scheming aunt to stay with the Delacour kin with the optimism that Lady Delacour will assist her discover a affluent and communally alluring husband.  Shifting from country existence to the Delacour’s chic household, Belinda is aghast by her hosts’ deficiency of modesty and discharge of duty.  Belinda’s efforts at conserving her uprightness and her status as she learns how to evaluate people and circumstances through shifting from a utopia replica of enlightenment domesticity and the disorder and disingenuousness of noble farce (Irvin 109). As Edgeworth puts across, the culture’s terror of the unisex female logician was founded on an apprehension about gender reverse, based on the intense concern that confronts to essential notions of male and female distinctiveness would undercut British society totally. Edgeworth, in this book, tries to redefine sex by substitute the female theorist who appeared to infringe nature with another who comprehends and believes custom. In this approach, Edgeworth thrives in re-describing sex through creating a feminine champion whose disposition is, according to the era’s consideration, almost completely masculine (Roy 76). Definite against a culture that supposed in the continuation of sexual nature that persevered on basic dissimilarities between men and women, Belinda is entirely the superior of standard men and the equivalent of amazing ones. She is a female of opinion whose reputation is resolute, not by the set feminine ideas of virginity and chastity, but through conventionally masculine ones. Her intrinsic worth is not characteristically feminine. She is neither timid nor compliant. Nor is she blameless, in the logic of not comprehending sexual longing. Rather, her merits are those that the society assumed as being principally within the sphere of men. Belinda thinks autonomously, and responds according to verdict rather than sentiment (Irvin 155). In addition, she is kind, courageous, and competent of unexpected actions of restraint. She acts according to main beliefs that she has urbanized through introspection, declines to partake in the sexual etiquettes that form the livelihood of her culture’s societal structure. At the commencement of the tale, there is no clue that Belinda will discern herself rationally, let alone mature into an influential campaigner for women (Maria 76). The only strange feature of Belinda at this spot, Edgeworth indicates, is a currently dimmed attention in manuscripts and a lack of pride and mannerism. However, she is identical to any youthful woman brought to the nation to get a spouse. Through the procedure of manifestation, thorough thinking regarding the lives she observes, and through cautiously examining her own responses and tasks, she tutors herself and expands her perceptive. She soon discovers that the information obtained from text is necessary to the progress of the ideologies requisite to be able to steer successfully in a composite societal planet. As a result,, through the enlargement of her intelligence and transforming herself into a woman of standard, Belinda now is capable to use ethical viewpoints to cure the most alienated of households (Paul 137). Discussion The two books are very similar in the exhibition of the Enlightenment. All the authors do it through their main characters, which show it through their actions. In addition, all the main characters are women, who are struggling to be autonomous in a male-dominated world. They persevere through much criticism and alienation before they finally prevail. Moreover, the plots of the two books revolve around the various degradations and mental and physical torture that the heroines undergo during their life (Irvin 176). The books are an ample depiction of Enlightenment in all perspectives, including their setting in the era and physical sense. Both stories are twisted by love issues, and the heroines making decisions that went against the accepted way of life. A bold similarity in the two books is their publication by women writers. That action in itself is an apt show of the Enlightenment of women. The women went on to publish prints whose story lines went against the accepted customs of writers back then. This in itself caused a major crisis, let alone the fact that they were women struggling to shine in a male-dominated field of work at the time (Paul 89). However, the books, though on a common pursuit in the exhibition of the Enlightenment, differ in some ways in the actual delivery. In Maria’s Belinda, the Enlightenment is shown through the actions of a conservative character amid a volatile and hostile surrounding. On the other hand, in Jane’s Persuasion, the heroine shows signs of the Enlightenment by going against her family’s wishes in regard to love. There is little violence involved. The two books are an excellent learning ground for the appropriate use of Enlightenment in narratives. In addition, they adequately publicize the Enlightenment of women, and the potential good to be gained from it, if only society is to agree and condone it. Work cited David, Williams. The Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Print. Dorinda, Outram. The Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2005. Print. Gunzelin, Schmid. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Carlifornia: Stanford University Press, 2002. Print. Irvine, D. On Enlightenment. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2003. Print. Jane, Austen. Persuasion. Michigan: Forgotten Books, 2003. Print. Margaret, C. The Enlightenment: A Brief History With Documents. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Print. Maria, Edgeworth. Belinda, Digitized. Oxford: Oxford University, 2007. Print. Paul, Hyland. The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader. London: Routledge, 2003. Print. Roy, Porter.The Enlightenment. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Print. Siskin, Clifford. This Is Enlightenment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010. Print. Read More