The American Workforce - Essay Example

A number of factors, including declining birth-rates, improved health and longevity and, the ageing of the baby boomers, have contributed to an ageing workforce. Indeed, over a decade ago, Riche and Merrick (1992) warned of precisely such a development, arguing that statistical indications all pointed to the direction of an ageing and culturally diverse workforce, implying the greater imperatives of embracing both age and cultural diversity in the workplace. In 1999, Drucker presented a similar argument, staring that by the turn of the century, the greater percentage of the American workforce will be aged.' An increasingly ageing workforce presents significant problems. In the first place, many HR scholars and theorists have suggested a direct correlation between age and ob satisfaction. In the second place, despite the 1967 Age Discrimination in Employment Act, ageism, referring to discrimination against employees on the basis of their age, is common (AOA, 1999; AARP, 1999; Smedley and Whitten, 2006). The implication here is that, within the context of an ever-aging workforce, ageism is potentially economically detrimental. Indeed, as several researchers have pointed out, America's aged workforce is , currently, the foundations upon which the national economy rests and, the practice of ageism, insofar as it has an incontrovertibly negative impact on job satisfaction, could wreak havoc upon the very foundations he economy rests upon (Perlman 1982; Iversen, 1998; Smallen, 1995, Smedley and Whitten, 2006). Despite a general recognition of the negative consequences of ageism, age discrimination is a risking problem in the American workplace. Mitchell (1993), Matcha (1997), Sicker (2002) and Smedley and Whitten (2006) concede that a wide array of societal factors incite ageism/age discrimination but the most important are the economic factors, especially those which hold that older workers are less productive and more costly to retain. In light of statistics forwarded by Dytchwald, Eriksson and Morrison (2006), the practice of ageism, as which would lead to a decrease in job satisfaction levels, hence motivation, is highly problematic. Figures for 2005 indicate that the older workforce has increased by 6.4 million over the past decade, two million individuals aged 50-74 are able to work and are seeking employment and that the number of men over the age of 50 who have decided to remain in the workforce has increased by 34% over the past decade (Dytchwald, Eriksson and Morrison, 2006). Apart from establishing the extent to which the American workforce has aged, the cited statistics are expressive of the magnitude of the problem which the economy faces should age be correlated to job satisfaction, on the one hand and should employees and co-workers exercise ageist practices as would negatively impact job satisfaction levels, on the other. Proceeding from within the framework of the above-stated, insofar as ageism is a predominant practice in the American workplace, and to the extent that the practice of ageism reduced job satisfaction levels, the consequences of both of the aforementioned shall be examined in relation to social workers (Goldberg, 2002). Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to examine the correlation between age and job satisfaction among social workers in the Plainfield, Illinois School District 202. Te correlation between age and job satisfaction shall be analysed in relation to a number of independent variables such as gender and ethnicity. Notwithstanding the primary focus on age, other determinants of job satisfaction, such as pay, fringe benefits promotion opportunities and workload shall be looked at. Research Question and Hypothesis The dissertation shall focus on the effect of age on job satisfaction among Illinois social workers, for determination of whether or not there exists a correlation between age and job satisfaction levels. For the purposes of the proposed study, the research question is, "is there a correlation between job satisfaction and age among Illinois social workers, and does either gender or ethnicity interact with age to influence job satisfaction levels" The hypothesis for this study is, "there is no correlation between age and job satisfaction among social workers consequent to the fact that are no perceptible ageist practices in this particular work environment and, indeed, there is a marked tendency towards the greater appreciation of older social workers as age denotes experience." Significance of the Study The proposed study seeks the determination of whether or not there exists a correlation between age and social worker job satisfaction levels. This is, in itself, a significant aim for two reasons. The first is that social worker job satisfaction levels directly impinges upon and influences their capacity to perform their professional responsibilities; responsibilities which directly tie into the welfare of entire communities. The second is that America is currently dealing with an ageing workforce and the demographics are not likely to change any time soon. Yet, despite the demographic reality and anti-ageism legislature, age discrimination prevails in the American workplace and functions as a predicator of job dissatisfaction. If social workers are facing ageism and if that is affecting their job satisfaction levels, it can only be assumed that this is adversely impacting their ability to execute their professional responsibilities. It, thus, becomes important to determine the correlation between social workers' age and job satisfaction levels for identification of possible problems, including discrimination, for the purpose of recommending corrective strategies. The significance of the study emanates, therefore, from both the focus and purpose of its investigation. Definition of Terms in the Study Ageism refers to the degree to which employees are treated differently because of their age. It is defined in negative terms and, specifically, as the mistreatment of people as a direct result of stereotypes pertaining to their age. Social workers refers to respondents who are members of the National association of Social Workers, are age 40 or over and are presently employed as a social workers at a social service organisation. Human Service Agencies are defined as public and nonprofit organisations which provide social services. Job Satisfaction refers to the extent to which employees/social workers perceive of their jobs as fulfilling and satisfying their needs. CHAPTER Two: Relevant literature Introduction This chapter shall briefly review literature on age and job performance and age and job satisfaction, primarily focusing on research pertaining to social workers. Age and Job Performance Barker (1999, p. 13) defines s "aged" as a term used to describe older people, explaining that developmental psychologists classify the aged population into three groups: "60-64 being the 'young old', 65-74 being the 'middle old' and older than 74 as the 'old old'." There are many myths associated with the older worker, such as: mental decline, physical decline, psychological decline, non-flexibility, non--productivity, conflictive, and lack of interest m working. Crampton, Hodge, and Mishra (1996, p. 252), however, contend that studies indicate otherwise. Numerous companies employing older workers found that seniors "provided significant benefit to the workplace ... with high levels of loyalty, motivation, attendance and morale, low turnover, flexibility in scheduling, developed ski&, experience, and mentoring abilities for younger workers." In terms of abilities, Goldberg (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of 96 published articles, covering 22 years of research on the correlation between age and job performance. She concluded that no relationship existed between age and deteriorating job performance. Smedely and Whitten (2006) concur, arguing that senior citizens are extremely productive and involved in many activities which go unrecognized and unappreciated, such as volunteer work, care-giving, and improving themselves educationally. Although a significant body of literature, much of which references empirical evidence and case studies, establishes that there is no correlation between age and decreased job performance, other studies have indicated that there can be. The presence or absence of a linkage is dependant on whether or not ageism is practiced in the workplace in question (AOA, 1999; AARP, 1999; Goldberg, 2002; Sicker, 2002; Smedely and Whitten, 2006). Indeed, as established by the literature on the topic, it is not at all uncommon for older workers to assimilate negative ageist stereotypes and for the said assimilation to subsequently impact their productivity levels (Goldberg, 2002; Sicker, 2002; Smedely and Whitten, 2006). The implication here is that while there is not, necessarily, a correlation between age and productivity, such a correlation is identifiable in workplaces which practice ageism, insofar as the older workers absorb these stereotypes and begin to act in accordance with them. The Changing Environment of Human Service Organisations Naturally, as the workforce rapidly changes its age demographic, human service occupations will similarly be affected. Given that studies of older workers' perceptions of ageism in human service organisations were not found, it is necessary to investigate these organisations for the purpose of clarifying their differences with other organisations and, especially as pertains to ageism. Cox (1993) contends that in the very near future, workforces will find themselves comprised of equal numbers of aged and young workers, in which instance, human service organisations will have to ensure their agencies can meet the needs of an aged workforce, let alone their own aged workers' needs. Doyle (2003) acknowledges the veracity of the stated and warns that the failure of agencies to respond could be a source of internal conflict and dissent within the agencies themselves, on the one hand, and insofar as they are supposed to be representative of the societies they serve, between human service organisations and their communities, on the other. Interestingly, Hansfeld (1996, p. 191) forwards a similar argument and emphasises that the ability of human service organisations to handle increased age diversity and gaps among staff and clients will be a major challenge: "Human service organizations are highly dependant on their environment for legitimation, clients, service technologies and resources. The dependence on the environment goes beyond the need for resources; it also reflects the essential role that human services play in upholding important social norms and values the dependence on the environment is further magnified by the fact that the environment is turbulent because human resource services cannot easily buffer themselves from cultural, political, demographic, economic and technological changes that affect dominant social values, impact on the services and their administration." The implication here is that the human service organizations, more than any other, have to contend with an ever-aging workforce, both on the intra and the extra-organisational levels. Social Work Profession For the purposes of this study, it is imperative to examine both the profession of social work and its ethical base in order to be able to approach the question of the correlation between age and job satisfaction on solid foundations. Daley (2006) defines social work as a profession whose mission is to help the poor and the disenfranchised. Brieland (1995) concurs but adds that the activities of social work organisations may nit be necessarily limited to the poor or the disenfranchised but, in both reality and theory, encompass vulnerable, per se. in addition to the aforementioned, social work organisations serve many different types of clients, ranging from the individual, to the group and from the community to the organization. It is precisely because of the complex nature of its variant types of service users that in 1977 and 1981, the National Association of Social Workers organized two conferences whose specific purposes were the articulation of a conceptual framework for social work and the elucidation of its ethical guidelines (Reamer, 1999; Cree, 2003). As per these guidelines, the primary purpose pf social work is the promotion of healthy interactions between individuals and their environment and to intervene in such instances where individuals are actively being deprived of their legitimate rights (Reamer, 1999; Cree, 2003). Deprivation of rights assumes many forms, amongst which is the denial of equal employment opportunities consequent to age or, the suffering of ageist practices in the workplace (Reamer, 1999; Cree, 2003). In other words, given that amongst the various duties of social workers is intervention in instances of age discrimination and the provision of such assistance as would ensure healthy interaction between an aged worker and his/her environment, the correlation between age among social workers and job satisfaction assumes unique importance. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction has been researched countless times and across various occupations, including human service organisations. While many of these studies addressed the determinants of job satisfaction among social workers, none where found on the correlation between age and job satisfaction. The handful of studies which were found were, in essence, inconclusive. Pond and Greyer (1987), for example, present empirical evidence which suggests a positive correlation between age and social workers' job satisfaction levels, contending that the younger the age of the social worker, the higher the levels of job satisfaction. According to pond and Greyer (1987) the aforementioned is predicated on the fact that younger social workers believe that they have countless opportunities before them and high probabilities of promotions. In immediate opposition to Pond and Greyer's (1987) findings, however, Acker (1999) contends that empirical evidence incontrovertibly establishes a negative correlation between age and job satisfaction among social workers. To complicate matters even further, Cree (2003) asserts that the younger the social worker, the lower the level of job satisfaction and, the older the social worker, the higher the level of job satisfaction. In other words, not only is the research indeterminate but findings are quite conflicting. This leads to an identification of the imperatives of correlating not just between age and job satisfaction but between all of age, gender, ethnicity and job satisfaction, on the possibility that ethnic and gender differences could account for the diverse findings reported. Summary The American workforce is growing older and the mentioned demographic trend is, of course, reflected in Human Service Organizations. Studies have indicated that age does not negatively influence the productive capacity of workers and employees but that the experience of ageism can. None of the studies found, however, examined the correlation between age and job satisfaction among social workers or incidents of ageism in the social work environment. Considering the extent to which job satisfaction impacts upon a social worker's capacity for effective service delivery, this may be defined as a gap in the literature which research needs to address. CHAPTER Three: METHODOLOGY Introduction The study shall adopt an exploratory, descriptive design. The researcher shall apply a random, cross-sectional survey to collect data from 150 social workers. Respondents are members of the Illinois National Association of Social Workers and, more specifically, all operate within the Illinois School District 202. Respondents will be equally divided among the under and the over-40 age groups for the purpose of determining correlation, if any, between age and job satisfaction. This chapter overviews the proposed sampling method, data collection instruments and, data analysis strategy. Potential ethical issues are considered. Research Question and Hypothesis For the purposes of the proposed study, the research questions are, "is there a correlation between job satisfaction and age among Illinois social workers," and "does either gender or ethnicity interact with age to influence job satisfaction levels" This means that the purpose of the dissertation is the determination of the precise nature of the relationship between age and job satisfaction, and the investigation of whether age or ethnicity influences satisfaction. The hypothesis for this study is, "there is no correlation between age and job satisfaction among social workers since there are no perceptible ageist practices in this particular work environment." Description of Methodology The researcher proposes the adoption of an exploratory, descriptive design for the purpose of investigating and determining the perception of social workers, both the under and the over forty groups, towards age and job satisfaction. Attitudes of both groups towards the older workers' capacity for performance shall also be investigated and analysed. The purpose of doing so lies in the importance of identifying either the presence or the absence of ageism in the workplace, considering the earlier discussed impact of the aforementioned on both capacity to perform and, hence, on job satisfaction. In addition to age, other variables such as race, ethnicity and gender shall also be collected and analyzed for subsequent determination if any of these variables influences the correlation between age and job satisfaction. The mentioned variables are further important for descriptive purposes. Population and Study Participants The researcher shall select the study's respondents from a sampling frame of Social workers registered as members of the Illinois National Association of Social Workers and shall adopt a convenience sampling approach. The sampling frame was not limited by age, although the researcher plans to review the age factor in order to select a sample population which is equally divided between the above and under-40 age groups. Neither volunteers nor private practitioners shall be selected for inclusion in the study. In order to facilitate the aforementioned, the researcher plans to contact the Illinois National Association of Social Workers for permission to access their membership registry/database. Instrumentation Two instruments were used to obtain data for this study, one of which was designed by the researcher. The first instrument, entitled the perception of Ageism in the Workplace, is intended to measure perceptions of ageism from the viewpoint of older social worker. Ageism will be measured in relation to perceived discrimination regarding promotion, benefits, distribution of responsibilities and training. The second instrument, Job Satisfaction, is derived from Spector (1995) and will measure job satisfaction levels among social workers using self-reporting. Items will be measured using the five-point Likert scale and shall include the job satisfaction predictor variables outlined in Chapter One. Data Collection and Procedures Close ended questionnaires are particularly useful for the cost-effective collection of large volumes of data within a limited time. They are further integral to the production of data which withstands quantitative analysis. Accordingly, the researcher proposes the exploitation of closed-ended, predominantly five-point Likert scale questionnaire for the collection of the requisite data. The questionnaire will include questions which measure years on the job, perceptions of salary/compensation packages, degree of security and comfort within the physical working environment, attitude towards workload, perceptions of opportunities for advancement and, most important of all, overall job satisfaction levels. Data Gathering Procedures Potential study participants will be obtained a sampling frame of Social workers registered as members of the Illinois National Association of Social Workers. Potential participants will be contacted via email and pending their consent to participate, the data collection instruments, close-ended questionnaires, will be sent to the respondents as email attachments. Instructions and guidelines for completion will be included and respondents will be directed to complete the questionnaires within two weeks. At the end of the first week, respondents will be set an email remainder. A second reminder will be emailed two days prior to the completion deadline. Human Subjects Protection Before conducting this study, the researcher shall obtain the approval of the Illinois National Association of Social Workers and, of course, the respondents themselves. The purpose of the study shall be explained to potential respondents and informed consent forms will be obtained from the parties involved and the anonymity and the respondents shall be respected and assured by the researcher. There is, however, no conceivable risk of harm to respondents. Ethics The study, as may have been deduced from the preceding, plans to utilize human subjects. As an immediate result of the stated, the researcher is bound to consider the possible ethical implications of dong so and any potential ethical problems and/or questions which might arise. Accordingly, the researcher shall ensure that all respondents are aware of, and comprehend, the purposes of this study. Respondents will be required to sign informed consent sheets, located at the front of the survey and, additionally, shall be explicitly told that this is an independent study and not one commissioned, or sponsored, by any particular organisation or institution. Any of the respondents who wish to be informed of the results of the study shall be. Bias The researcher is not aware of any bias towards the study participant and, indeed, as far as the researcher is concerned, they are anonymous participants. It need be noted, however, that the researcher has a set of preconceived notions regarding age and job satisfaction among social workers, as influenced by the researcher's own experiences and readings. This potential bias needs to be considered. Conclusion As may have been determined from the preceding, the dissertation shall study the presence of a possible correlation between age and job satisfaction among social workers in the Plainfield, Illinois school district 202 area. To date, there have been hardly any studies on this specific correlation, despite the fact that the relationship between job satisfaction and age has been studied across a number of occupations. Furthermore, even from within the context of the handful of studies on the stated question, results were both inconclusive and contradictory. It is, thus, that this study has contributory value and can be regarded as filling a gap in the field. References Acker, G.M. (1999) The impact of clients' mental illness on social workers' job satisfaction and burnout. Health and Social Work, 24(2), 112-119. Administration on Ageing [AOA]. (1999) Age discrimination: A pervasive and damaging influence. [Online] Available http://www.aoa.gov/factsheets/ageism.html American Association of Retired Persons [AARP]. (1999) A profile of older Americans, 1999. Program Resource Department, U.S. Department of health and Human Services. Washington D.C. Barker, R. (1999) The Social Work Dictionary (4th ed.) Washington, D.C.: NASW Press. Brieland D. (1995) Social work practice: history and evolution. In R.L. Edwards et al. (eds). Encyclopaedia of Social Work. 19th Edition. (Vol. III, pp. 2247-2257). Washington D.C.: NASW Press. Cox, T. (1993) Cultural Diversity in Organisations: Theory, Research and Practice. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Crampton, S., Hodge, J. and Mishra, J. (1996). Transition - ready or not: The ageing of America's workforce. Public Personal Management, 25(2), 243-256. Cree, V. (2003) Becoming A Social Worker. New York: Routledge. Daley, J.G. (2006) Advances in Social Work: Special Issue on The Futures of Social Work. Indiana: Indiana University School of Social Work Press. Doyle, C. (2003) Work and Organizational Psychology: An Introduction with Attitude (Psychology at Work). New York: Psychology Press. Drucker, P.F. (1999) Management Challenges for the 21st Century. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Dytchwald, K., Eriksson, T.J., and Morrison, R. (2006) Workforce Crisis: How to Beat the Coming Shortage of Skills And Talent. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Goldberg, B. (2002) Age Works: What Corporate America Must Do to Survive the Graying of the Workforce. New York: Free Press. Hansfeld, Y. (1996) The administration of human services - What lies ahead In P. Raffoul and A McNeece (Eds.) Future Issues for Social Work Practices. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. Iversen, R.R. (1998) Occupational social work for the 21st century. Social Work, 43, 551-570. Perlman, R.R. (1982) The client as worker. In S.H. Akabas and P.A. Kurman (Eds) Work, Workers, and Work Organisations: A View from Social Work. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Matcha, D.A. (1997) The Sociology of Ageing: A Social Problem Perspective. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. Mitchell, O.S. (1993) As the Workforce Ages: Costs, Benefits and Policy Challenges. New York: ILR Press. Pond, S. and Greyer, P. (1987) Employee age as moderator of the relations between perceived work alternatives and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72. 552-557. Reamer, F.G. (1999) Social Work Values and Ethics. New York: Columbia University Press. Riche, M.F. and Merrick, T.W. (1992) Workforce and compensation in the 21st century: A demographic perspective. ACA Journal, 2(2), 48-59. Sicker, M. (2002) The Political Economy of Work in the 21st Century: Implications for an Aging American Workforce. Westport: Quorum Books. Smallen, J.M. (1995) Social timing, life continuity, and life observance: Implications for vocational change. Social Work, 40(4), 531-541. Smedley, K. and Whitten, H. (2006) Age Matters: Employing, Motivating And Managing Older Employees. Burlington: Gower Publishing. Spector, P.E. (1995) Measurement of human services staff satisfaction: Development of the job satisfaction survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(6), 693-713. Read More