Cultural development - Essay Example

Home Work Question Phases of Cultural Development Cultural development can be referred to as cultural refinement.Cultural Development theories strive to describe the quality changes in the framework and structure of society, which help its members realize their aims and objectives (Johnson & Lewis 15). Cultural development entails the inclusion of other factors that transform the society in an upward ascending direction characterized by quality, complexity, energy, productivity, mastery, efficiency, comprehension, enjoyment, creativity and accomplishment (Johnson & Lewis 16). Cultural development does not only entail the integration of new programs and policies in the society, but it also includes the process of social change. The process of cultural development is characterized by three phases that include physical, vital and mental stages. All these phases are different from one another since they are introduced into the society one at a time. Physical Stage This phase is mainly marked with the domination of physical aspects of the human personality (Johnson & Lewis 31). At this stage, people are required to adhere and follow tradition strictly, and only little change and innovation are required. Society in this stage is mainly meant for survival and subsistence. Land is the most outstanding resource, and wealth is weighed on the size of land holdings (Johnson & Lewis 32). During this stage, money and commerce play minor roles, and experimental and innovative approaches are discouraged. Church and religious beliefs are responsible for introducing new technological knowledge into the society (Johnson & Lewis 32). Professional skills are passed down from the parents to the children. Vital Stage This stage is marked with change and dynamism. Society becomes adventurous and innovative thereby expanding its activities (Johnson & Lewis 47). The society transforms from stressing on interactions with the physical environment to emphasizing on the social interactions between people. Agriculture, which is the main economic activity at this stage is fueled by trade. New programs and policies that encourage commerce and trade are introduced into the society. Experimental and innovative approaches are encouraged, and demand for knowledge and skills rise. This is the stage where people begin to strive to acquire leisure and luxury, which were not attainable when the society was at subsistence level (Johnson & Lewis 48). Mental Stage This stage is characterized by the social, political and practical application of mind. At this stage, the society emphasizes on education, technology and inventions. New social organizations, political systems, human rights and democratic movements are created (Johnson & Lewis 67). People are also allowed to interact with God directly without the mediation of church leaders. Mental stage is fueled by technological advancements such as telecommunication, air travel, modern roads and networking (Johnson & Lewis 68). Technical Development Technical change is a process that is characterized by three main stages that include invention, innovation and diffusion of processes (Johnson & Lewis 54). Invention Invention refers to the breakthrough in technology or the creation of new things (Johnson & Lewis 26). It involves the creation of new idea that had not been created or discovered by anyone else. Everett Rogers indentified five elements of an innovation, which impact the extent of its effectiveness. They include compatibility, trialability, complexity, observability, and relative advantage (Johnson & Lewis 111). Innovation Innovation entails the development of an inventive idea to create refined and leaned products and services (Johnson & Lewis 124). This is the stage that proves or fails the worthiness of an inventive idea. It is less risky than invention because it deals with known quantities, qualities and parameters (Johnson & Lewis 127). For example, the availability of personal computers has aided the creation of Software that human has also used to improve the quality of life. Diffusion Technological diffusion is the spread of technology through an industry or society. This process usually follows an S-shaped curve since the initial stages of innovation are unsuccessful, followed by a stage of high level innovations, and finally drops as the technology reaches its maximum potential in the market (Johnson & Lewis 142). Question #2 Salinization is the process that leads to an increased amount of water-soluble salts in the soil (Johnson & Lewis 147). Salts that are accumulated include carbonates, bicarbonates, magnesium, chloride, potassium, sodium and sulphates. There two types of salinization: primary salinization and secondary salinization (Johnson & Lewis 148). Primary salinization is caused by natural processes resulting from high salt content in the underground water or parent material. Human-induced salinity is cause by human activities that alter the hydraulic balance of the soil between water applied and water used by plants (Johnson & Lewis 130). Some of the main causes include irrigation using salt-rich water, or insufficient irrigation, and replacement of perennial plants with annual crops and land clearing. This paper will only describe mechanisms that cause human-produced salinization. Before human began irrigation activities in both arid and semi arid, there was a balance between applied water (rainfall) and water used by natural vegetation (transpiration). Irrigation activities and clearing of land interfered with this balance. Irrigation and rainfall provided excess water than crops could use. This increased the amount of water in the soil, thereby raising the water table and dissolving salts that were initially stored in the sub-soil (Johnson & Lewis 18). During water-uptake, plants have a mechanism of eliminating salts, and this leads to further accumulation of salts in the soil-water. Sometimes the water table rises up to the surface, and as the water evaporates, it leaves behind salts. This causes further accumulation of salts in the soil-water thus forming a “salt scald” (Johnson & Lewis 24). Clearing of land also changes hydrological balance. Perennial and deep-rooted vegetation in their natural status efficiently absorb all the rainwater that falls on the ground surface (Johnson & Lewis 34). The replacements of natural vegetation with annual crops that are shallow rooted allow the salts dissolved by rainwater to drip down into the water table. This also like irrigation increases the water table. Question #3 Effects of Land Covers on Erosion The three land covers that are identified in the area include forest, pasture and water bodies. Grass/pasture and forest reduce soil erosion by holding soil particles firmly together. They completely cover the soil thus protecting the soil from direct rain drops. The speed of run-offs is also reduced, and this gives the water table enough time to absorb most of the rainwater (Johnson & Lewis 66). Perennial vegetation also has long roots that absorb risen table water, and this increases the rate of evaporation thus creating a balance in the hydrological cycle. Water bodies like lakes and streams in the region protect the soil by increasing the rate of evaporation and channeling most of water into lakes and sea. Factors influencing Erosion Rainfall: too much rainfall release high volumes of water into the ground surface. Accumulation of extra water on the surface leads to the buildup of run-offs, which find their ways downstream as they cause massive soil erosion (Johnson & Lewis 136). This situation is usually worse when there is limited vegetation cover in that area. Run-offs: the strength of the run-offs depends on the amount of rainfall received and slope length. The larger the volume of rainfall received, the stronger the erodibility power of the run-offs, and the longer and steeper the slope, the greater the power of erosion (Johnson & Lewis 137). Slope: the steeper the slope of land, the greater the rate of erosion. In addition, longer slope lengths also encourage soil erosion. This is because they create a vast area where run-offs converge thereby increasing their erodibility strength (Johnson & Lewis 137). Question #4 Environmental Problems and Issues: Deforestation There are seven key global environmental problems and issues that are addressed in the video “Global Problems and Issues”. These include climate change, conservation, environmental degradation, land degradation, land use, pollution, and waste management (Johnson & Lewis 115). This paper, however, describes the causes and impacts of deforestation on the environment. Causes of Deforestation Commercial purposes: some of the causes include clearing land for mining and oil exploitation, highways construction, wildfires and farming techniques. Permanent structures on the land surface make it impossible to reclaim the forests, and this leads to complete loss of habitats and forests for the local wildlife (Johnson & Lewis 117). Urban Construction: The need for construction materials, paper products and furniture has a negative impact on the forests. Natural habitats are also cleared to give space for expanding urban centers. This results into massive deforestation and loss of forests (Johnson & Lewis 118). Agriculture: forests are cleared to create space for building farms, ranches, growing crops, grazing lands and other agricultural activities. Used for Fuel: this is mostly common in developing countries where fire woods are used directly or turned into charcoal. Impacts of Deforestation Erosion of Soil: clearing of vegetation cover exposes the soil to direct sun and the rainfall. Direct sun makes the soil dry and infertile because most of the volatile nutrients are evaporated into the atmosphere. Rainfall water also washes the nutrients down streams through the water ways. Large and deep channels formed in the water ways also render the land useless (Johnson & Lewis 124). Disruption of the Water Cycle: lack of vegetation covers lead to over accumulation of water in the soil. Lack of evaporation creates a drier climate in the affected area. Lack of vegetation top retain water also makes it impossible for water table to absorb enough water, and this leads to lack of water resources (Johnson & Lewis 127). Other effects include depletion of forests, loss of biodiversity, climate change, flooding and drought. Question #5 Effects of Desertification on Aral Sea The environmental change and water supply change around the Aral Sea are attributed to problems of desertification. Desertification refers to the degradation process taking place in the environment, which is characterized by salinization, erosion, loss of biodiversity, and other environmental degradation outcomes that directly affect people and their economic activities (Johnson & Lewis 86). Active participation of human on the environment is the main cause of desertification around Aral Sea. Aral Sea is located within the territory of Central Asia, a region that is homogenous in climatic and orographic terms (Johnson & Lewis 87). These climatic features are as a result of three key factors, which include underlying surface, solar radiation and circulation of the atmosphere. Substantial amount of solar radiation received during the summer causes intensive heating of the air and soil (Johnson & Lewis 87). Aral Sea is boarded by vast waterless Kizilkum and Karakum deserts, which are vast sources of air masses transformations. There has been a tremendous environmental degradation and depletion around this region for the last twelve years, and the area occupied by vegetation has decreased from 40 percent to 30 percent (Johnson & Lewis 87). In addition, desertified and saline regions of the delta and flood plains have increased from 25 percent to 70 percent. Desertification around Aral Sea was mainly influenced by human activities. The need for social development of the region is one of the key factors that led to increased human activities in this region. One of the major problems in developing this region was supplying safe and clean water to the rural population. This problem is characterized by intensified environmental crisis, degradation and depletion of water supply resources, and pollution (Johnson & Lewis 92). Desertification has created an environment around Aral Sea that requires considerable changes in socio-economic development strategies and policies (Johnson & Lewis 92). Changing socio-economic activities is not only crucial in this region, but also in other regions that are under extreme environmental and natural conditions (Johnson & Lewis 94). The local authority operating in this area has struggled to regulate social processes, raises allowance, pensions and minimum wage, but this has not raised the living standards of the local civilians. The desertification problem can be solved by reducing socio-economic activities. Therefore, the government should improve social protection of the environment as this will lead to better environmental transformation (Johnson & Lewis 96). Question #6 Subsidence Surface subsidence is a hazardous activity that results from the sudden collapse of the ground surface to form a depression near the Earth’s surface (Johnson & Lewis 177). Surface subsidence is, however, not as hazardous as other activities such as tsunami, volcanic, earthquake and landslides. Sudden collapse is caused by both natural and human activities. Natural activities involve dissolution of carbonate rocks beneath the ground surface (Johnson & Lewis 177). Generally, subsidence is caused by any process that lowers the water table. Therefore, ecological conditions under which surface substance occurs include dry seasons, drought, and excessive withdrawal of groundwater by man (Johnson & Lewis 178). Groundwater moves upwards and downwards within the saturated Zone. Upward movement is caused through diffusion where fluids tend to move from highly concentrated regions to lowly concentrated regions. On the other side, downward movement is caused by gravity (Johnson & Lewis 178). After withdrawal of the ground water, subsidence occurs as a result of hydrocarbonation. Hydrocarbonation withdraws water that is stored in clay, thereby causing it to shrink. Shrinkage reduces the volume of clay, and this is what causes the surface to shrink (Johnson & Lewis 181). Land Geological Condition of San Joaquin Valley San Joaquin Valley, California is a sediment filled depression that boarders the California Coast Ranges on the west, and Sierra Nevadas on the east (Johnson & Lewis 280). This region is categorized under forensic basin meaning that it is a valley formed in front of a mountain range. Long ago before this valley was formed, it existed as an inland sea between two mountain ranges. During this time, it was occupied by planktons and diatoms. When these organisms died they settled and accumulated on the basin floor, creating organic-rich shales, which includes Miocene Monterey and Eucene kreyenhagen formation (Johnson & Lewis 281). Pressure and heat acted on the buried organic matter to form oil. The oil through mass streaming created a void that that led to the subsidence of the region. Geological Condition of Mexico City The valley of Mexico exists as a closed basin, and this implies that it does not drain. Hydrological balance is maintained by evaporation that is efficient enough to keep pace with water supply. Small rivers and streams deposit great thickness of alluvial fill in the valley. Erosion and run-offs from basaltic volcanic rocks also brought clay and silt rather than sand. This made the valley floor more relatively flat, and lakes that occupied this region became very shallow (Johnson & Lewis 282). When people first occupied this area, they practiced economic activities that interfered with water table, and changed hydrological cycle. This led to hydrocarbonation that also led to the beginning of surface subsidence in this region. Currently, this city sits on a basin that is characterize3d by horrendous air pollution and frequent earthquakes (Johnson & Lewis 285). Works Cited Johnson D. L, Lewis L. A. Land Degradation: Creation and Destruction. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. Print Read More