Participant Observation in the Context of Ethnography - Essay Example

? Participant Observation in the Context of Ethnography Essay of Introduction Participant observation is one of the major research methods applied to the context of ethnography. Ethnography is focused on the analysis, explanation, and description of a culture, social phenomenon, or a community. The core objective of ethnography is to “grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to life and to realise his vision of his world” (Wolcott, 1999, 138). Basically, ethnography tries to present an ‘insider’s’ description of a culture in question. In participant observation the researcher takes part or becomes involved in the existing activities of the community and document observations. Generally the observer assumes the role being explored (Flick, 2009). However, similar to other research methods, participant observation in the context of ethnography has benefits and limitations. This essay explores these strengths and weaknesses, as well as its ethical implications. Benefits and Limitations Participant observation grants the researcher the opportunity to explore phenomenon from the inside. They are valuable in ethnography when behaviours and thoughts can be identified and appreciated best in their natural situation or when the observer plans to explore social dynamics or cultural trend over a period of time. They generate a wide array of information or knowledge about the responses of individuals and provide researchers the opportunity to build theories from the information gathered (Hume & Mu, 2004). However, the key benefit of participant observation for ethnography is that it produces an accurate understanding of how individuals perform their daily activities or tasks. It presents truthful knowledge of how individuals view cultural or societal processes, norms, and roles when studied methodically, which implies that the researcher is not only performing an observation but is also examining contexts, situations, or relationships with an assumption of how interaction or communication must be taking place (Kirby, 2000). Hence, participant observation within the context of ethnography is a field that must be known to all corporate or organisational professionals. A perfect example is how Gary DiCamillo, the CEO of Polaroid Corporation, acted when he took on the corporate position in the 1990s (Stacks, 2010, 191). Aside from interviewing the members of the organisation, he checked the different Polaroid sites, visited the control centres and facilities, and participated in dialogues about the company with managers and employees. Due to his continuous participant observation, he was able to discover the company’s strong and weak points, and to plan his future actions for Polaroid (Stacks, 2010, 191). In essence, according to Gummesson (1999), participant observation gives the researcher the chance to have a profound, compassionate, and culturally-sensitive knowledge of how individuals perceive the world. It is particularly valuable in the ‘exploratory’ phase of an ethnographic study (Myers, 2008), when researchers have an unclear or indefinite idea of what they are trying to discover or understand and an unclear idea of what they will find out. The major limitation of participant observation within the context of ethnography involves the amount of effort, time, and related costs it requires (Bryman & Bell, 2007). In addition, because participant observation generally requires only one researcher in a particular social situation, it is not easy to find out if other researchers would evaluate aspects similarly and it is not easy to determine how generally results may be related to other situations (Symon & Cassell, 1998; Collis & Hussey, 2009). Thus one of the major limitations of participant observation is reliability. In summary, the strengths of participant observation are as follows: the researcher is responsive to new ideas; it can analyse the deepest aspects of social processes or cultural dynamics; it assumes the role or perspective of the participants; and participants act normally, hence findings are well-founded. On the other hand, the limitations are as follows: it poses major ethical concerns; the researcher could be prejudiced; the presence of the researcher may influence the group’s attitudes and behaviour; it requires a substantial amount of time, effort, and resources; it may not be reliable because it cannot be replicated or verified; and, it may not be representative because it focuses on small groups. Ethical Implications Participant observation in the context of ethnography provides the researcher “an intimate knowledge of face-to-face communities and groups” (Hume & Mu, 2004, 16). However, this ‘intimate knowledge’ can sometimes be perplexing, tarnished by ethical issues and a researcher’s personal motives, threatened by the unpredictability of social processes, and weakened by attempts to remain objective and involved at the same time (Hume & Mu, 2004, 16). There are major ethical issues with participant observation in the context of ethnography. Most researchers believe that participation or assuming the role of a participant should be informed and voluntary (Thomas, 2004). Moreover, according to Easterby-Smith and colleagues (2012), participant observation procedures intensify the issues of researcher bias or prejudice, because, as a participant, the researcher may vigorously instigate occurrences that may not take place as expected or naturally, and may affect the group’s response to these and other occurrences. Participant observation may, at times, be turned down based on ethics. More particularly, ‘covert’ participant observation carries serious ethical implications. Should researchers take part in studies on people without their consent or knowledge, even though this amounts to a violation of privacy? The British Sociological Association (1991) explains the ethical implications of covert participant observation (Kirby, 2000, 360): There are serious ethical dangers in the use of covert (or secret) research, but in some circumstances covert methods may avoid certain problems. Covert methods violate the principles of informed consent and may invade the privacy of those being studied. Participant or non-participant observation in non-public spaces or experimental manipulation of participants without their knowledge should be resort to only where it is impossible to use other methods to obtain essential data. This raises the dilemma of whether researchers should inform the participants of the research, and subsequently carry out an overt participant observation, or whether the ‘covert’ method is more appropriate. At times, covert participant observation is better due to safety issues. Participant observation thus in fact bears a complicated ethical dilemma. Conclusions Participant observation in the context of ethnography has benefits, limitations, and ethical implications. However, in the field of ethnography, its benefits overweigh its limitations. Nevertheless, the decision to conduct participant observation is confounded by its inherent ethical dilemmas, particularly with regard to privacy, informed consent, safety issues, and confidentiality. Still, participant observation is one of the best research methods available to corporate practitioners. References Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2007). Business Research Methods. New York: Oxford University Press. Collis, J. & Hussey, R. (2009). Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., & Jackson, P. (2012). Management Research. London: SAGE. Flick, U. (2009). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. London: SAGE. Gummesson, E. (1999). Qualitative Methods in Management Research. London: SAGE. Hume, L. & Mu, J. (2004). Anthropologists in the Field: Cases in Participant Observation. New York: Columbia University Press. Kirby, M. (2000). Sociology in Perspective. UK: Heinemann. Myers, M. (2008). Qualitative Research in Business & Management. London: SAGE. Stacks, D.W. (2010). Primer of Public Relations Research. New York: Guilford Press. Symon, G. & Cassell, C. (1998). Qualitative Methods and Analysis in Organisational Research: A Practical Guide. London: Sage Publications. Thomas, A. (2004). Research Skills for Management Studies. London: Routledge. Wolcott, H.F. (1999). Ethnography: A Way of Seeing. UK: Rowman, Altamira. Read More