Analysis of Banduras Theory - Essay Example

Introduction Bandura has posited a theory of human behaviour that offers three factors that influence the way persons act in given situations. The aspects of this theory-observational learning, self efficacy, and self-regulation-have been shown to be behaviours that are evident in the way students position themselves to learn. These behavioural aspects have been studied in several areas of psychology such as people's mental health, their attitudes toward physical health, the behaviours that influence athletic performance, and other areas. Researchers have also found that students' achievement level from the primary through the high school levels (and beyond) demonstrate the extent to which they have mastered one or all of these aspects of Bandura's behavioural theory. In fact, several studies have shown a high correlation between mastery of these behaviours and high achievement in school. Observational Learning Observation has been demonstrated as having a significant impact on learning in several areas of psychology (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978). These researchers have documented evidence that shows children responding to behaviours observed in adults. The children then learn and subsequently emulate the behaviours. Specifically within the education context, this theory has been found to have merit in that students who observe a model (parent or teacher) depicting positive study attitudes and habits and then emulate that model generally demonstrate a higher level of academic success than those who do not engage in observational learning (Bird et al., 2005; Martinez-Pons, 2002). One of the problems with observation in the educational context is that physical processes are much easier to observe than mental processes. The child who learns how to assemble a toy by watching an adult or older sibling is at an advantage compared to the student who must acquire skills for studying. A model's retreat to a quiet area is visible enough, but self monitoring and regulatory skills generally take place within the mind of the studier and can often only be passed on to an observer through conscious effort on the part of the modeller to get the idea across. Studies have shown that behaviours of students to whom the meta-cognitive strategies have been purposively modelled have demonstrated high levels of achievement than those who are generally left on their own to figure it out (Martinez-Pons, 2002). In a study done by Zimmerman and Kitsantas (1999) students given a writing task were separated into groups in which the necessary strategies for successfully completing the task were either modelled for emulation, verbally described, or directly practised (as distinct from modelling in which mental as well as physical processes are exposed). The result of the experiment was that students who received support in the form of adult modelling of the behaviours necessary for success were better able to independently display skills that led to success in the academic task (Martinez-Pons, 2002). The observation of parents in situations that can be related to learning has also been seen to have an effect on students' ability to perform academically. It is often the case that students who grow up in an environment that encourages learning do better academically than those who have not that privilege. This phenomenon has been described by Martinez-Pons (2002) as a "hidden curriculum." The students exposed to such a curriculum are often able to watch parents in behaviours that are self-regulatory and that lead to learning. A study carried out by Martinez-Pons demonstrated that "parental modeling and support for self-regulatory processes precede students' development of these skills" which lead to positive and high levels of academic achievement. Self Efficacy Self efficacy has been defined as a person's perception of his or her ability to perform a given task. It is distinct from self esteem and self concept in that it is closely tied to a given context, so that a person's self efficacy might vary with different tasks (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). This aspect of Bandura's model has been shown to have a high correlation to students' performance in school, and this fact has much to do with motivation and goal setting (Lane, Hall & Lane, 2004). A student who is convinced that he or she is able to do a task is less daunted by initial failure at that task. Such a student is more likely to express concern when failure occurs, and is more apt to persevere, believing that he or she does possess the ability to fix the problem or find the mistake. This type of persevering behaviour is indicative of a higher level of motivation toward a task. The student who demonstrates self efficacy is also one who is likely to make choices that positively affect their understanding and retention of the subject in question. They persist in the task in which they are involved and display a high level of cognitive engagement. These factors coupled with those of self regulation (in which the self efficacious person is also likely to engage) lead to high achievement (2002). Self efficacy has also been noted as being correlated with students' competence within their society and to their likelihood of embracing their social responsibility and adhering to societal rules or norms. This appears to tie self efficacy somewhat to observational learning, as the norms of society are often passed on from one generation to the next through the methods of observation. It is to be noted however that self efficacy is not just a contributor to the positive behaviours and study habits of high achievers or the negative ones of their low-achieving counterpart. It is also the effect of low or high achievement (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Boekaerts et al. (2003) explains, "During learning episodes, students not only acquire declarative and procedural knowledge but [] they simultaneously build up a network of beliefs about themselves as successful or unsuccessful learners." Therefore, a person who has tried and repeatedly failed at a task is likely to develop low self efficacy for that task, and is apt to lose interest and display a lack of motivation for the particular task (Boekaerts et al., 2003; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). It is also desirable that student display such a level of efficacy that relates closely to their actual abilities. Though it may seem that higher self efficacy leads to higher motivation and achievement, it may also be the case that having too high a level of self efficacy might set as student to a task that is too far beyond her abilities and lead to more frustration than academic progress (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Self efficacy has also been linked to theories of attribution, expressed in students' reactions to success or failure at a certain task. After viewing the results of a task, the stability, locus and controllability of the cause is viewed and analysed by the student (Boekaerts et al., 2003; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Students who have low self efficacy may perceive that the results of a task are both stable and out of their locus of control. In such a case, the expenditure of effort that will most likely (in their view) lead to negative results is likely to be generative of stress. Students will therefore be apt to avoid any task that would afford such stress (2003). The opposite scenario is also valid, where students whose effort brings success are likely to expend more effort in performing the task in the expectance of earning more success. This behaviour comes within the realm of self efficacy. Self Regulation According to a number or researchers, Bandura's behavioural aspect of self regulation is a major contributor to the achievement of success in education (Boekaerts et al., 2003; Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Martinez-Pons, 2001). Self regulation has to do with students' ability to control their behaviour as it regards studying (2003). It has been described as the learner's thoughts about and reactions to learning outcomes when such thoughts and actions are generated by the learner himself. Self regulation has also been linked by some researchers to actions of delaying gratification; that is, forfeiting the instant gratification of enjoyable distractions (such as television or socialisation) for the distant utility value of the studying at hand (Bembenutty & Karabenick, 2004). Self regulation, according to Zimmerman, is comprised of three stages: forethought, performance, and self reflection (cited in Bembenutty & Karabenick, 2004). Another interpretation of this model (as partly outlined above) describes the self-regulatory student as one who is inclined to do well at a given task, set attainable goals, use strategies that lead to the attainment of the goal, monitor the effectiveness of his/her actions, and adjust strategies according to their effectiveness (Martinez-Pons, 2001). In education, the critical nature of the transition from primary to the higher grades is often compounded by the fact that teachers often provide more self-regulatory help at the lower levels when students' academic tasks are less demanding (2001). By the time students reach high school, they are required to perform sophisticated tasks and exhibit time management skills to deal with the workloads of unrelated subjects. Self regulators are generally able to motivate themselves to do a task even when it is not one they find intrinsically enjoyable. They use such strategies as goal setting, self verbalisation (self talk), and viewing the future rewards/punishments-that is, they have a future time perspective of the utility of the task (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Lane, Hall, & Lane, 2004; Bembenutty & Karabenick, 2004). One study has shown that students who believe that others (such as parents and teachers) are responsible for their motivation and self regulation tend to be more apathetic toward their education (2000). Self-regulatory students are apt to take advantage of a wide array of learning strategies in order to enhance or add variety to their studying. Therefore, when/if one strategy fails to produce results, another is employed-leading to the maximization of their study time. Conclusion Bandura's behavioural theory has proved itself a seminal area of research that has sparked many innovative research projects and led to numerous useful research findings. The aspects of observational learning, self efficacy, and self regulation have been applied to the area of education to the effect that practice has been enhanced by the revelations they have afforded. Educators have realised that observational learning is instrumental not only in teaching the content of their courses but also in passing on vital self regulatory skills that improve students self efficacy and by extension their motivation toward learning. Students who have been exposed to these behavioural aspects of learning and have mastered them have overwhelmingly shown that these factors have a significant effect on enhancing academic achievement. References Bembenutty, H. & S. Karabenick. (2004). "Inherent association between academic delay of gratification, future time perspective, and self-regulated learning." Educational Psychology Review. Vol. 16(1), 35-59. Bird, G., M. Osman, A. Saggerson & C. Heyes. (2005). "Sequence learning by action, observation, and action-observation." British Journal of Psychology. Vol. 96, 371- 388. Boekaerts, M., R. Otten & R. Voeten. (2003). "Examination performance: are students' causal attributions school-subject specific" Anxiety, Stress, and Coping.Vol. 16(3), 331-342. Dembo, M. & M. Eaton. (2000). "Self regulation of academic learning in middle-level schools." The Elementary School Journal. Vol. 100(5), 473-490. Lane, A., R. Hall & J. Lane. (2004). "Self efficacy and statistics performance among sports studies students." Teaching in higher education. Vol. 9(4), 435-450. Linnenbrink, E & P. Pintrich. (2002). "Motivation as an enabler for academic success." School Psychology Review. Vol. 31(3), 313-327. Martinez-Pons, M. (2002). "Parental influences on children's academic self-regulatory development." Theory into practice. Vol. 41(2), 126-131. Rosenthal, T.L., & Zimmerman, B.J. (1978). Social learning and cognition. New York: Academic Press. Zimmerman, B.J., & Kitsantas, A. (1999). Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from process to outcome self-regulatory goals. Journal of EducationalPsychology, Vol. 91, 1-10. 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