Why Did Romans Fear Rule By Monarchy - Essay Example

Why did Romans fear rule by Monarchy From its founding, Rome was ruled by kings, including Romulus who was the s founder. After Romulus, the Roman kings were elected by the people to serve for life. None of the monarchs relied on military force to gain the seat of power. Historians did not make any reference to the hereditary principle in electing the first four kings. However, with Tarquinius Priscus, it was said that royal inheritance flowed from the female relations of the deceased monarch. The Roman kings were therefore chosen primarily on their virtues and not royal lineage. The powers wielded by the king are difficult to determine since some historians attribute them with those possessed by later Republican leaders, mainly the Consuls. Modern historians believe that Rome's kings were the chief executive for the senate and the people, and that real power was exercised by the people. Other historians believe that the king had the supreme power and the senate and people only had checks upon his power. The king had the sole right to auspice in behalf of Rome as its chief augur. No public business could be undertaken without consent of the gods whose will were made known through the auspices. Thus, the king is treated with reverence as he is considered the mediator between the gods and the people. The king is therefore the head of the national religion and the is its foremost religious executive. He had the power to control the Roman calendar. He also conducted all religious ceremonies, created lower religious officers, and appointed their officials. Aside from his religious authority, the king also held supreme military and judicial authority by virtue of the Imperium. It was his for life and was protected and gave him immunity from being tried for his actions. This allowed him to exercise vast military powers that could not be checked, for he was commander of all Roman legions. The kings wielded enormous power since there was also an absence of laws which protected citizens from the abuses of officials possessing the Imperium. The Imperium also allowed the king to make legal judgments since he also acts as the chief justice of Rome. He had overall jurisdiction over cases brought before him, whether they are civil or criminal, although he could also assign pontiffs to function as minor judges. The powers vested upon him by the Imperium made the king supreme in both peace and war. Although a council advices the king during trials, it has no power over the king and cannot control his decisions. Some historians believe that the king's decision was final and cannot be appealed. Others say that an appeal can be made by a patrician or member of the elite, during meetings of the Curiate Assembly, which elected magistrates and exercised judicial and legislative powers. The king also had the power to nominate or appoint all officials to offices. He appoints a Tribunus Celerum who is similar to the Praetorian Prefect, and served as the commander of the king's bodyguard. The king appointed the Tribune upon entering office and the Tribune was required to eave his office upon the death of the king. The Tribune was second in rank to the king and possessed the authority to convene the Curiate Assembly. The king also appointed the Praefectus Urbanus who performed the duties of warden of the city. The prefect assumed all the king's powers and abilities when the monarch is absent from the city. He assumed the king's power that he was also bestowed the Imperium while inside the city. There came a point in time when the king also acquired the sole right to appoint patricians to the senate. The Senate and the Curiate Assembly had very little power and authority under the Roman kings. They were not independent bodies that could meet and discuss affairs of state. They could only be convened by the king and their discussions are limited to matters which are presented before them by the monarch. The Curiate Assembly had the power to pas laws presented before them by the king. However, the Senate was an honourable body for the king. They provide advise but have no power to prevent him from any action. The only limitation to the king's power is that he needs the consent of the Senate to wage war on any foreign nation. Much power was concentrated and exclusive to the Roman kings. Thus, the powers they held especially the Imperium were eventually abused by later monarchs. The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus, the son of Tarquinius Priscus and son-in-law of Servius. He used violence and murder to maintain control over Rome. He also repealed many of the constitutional reforms enacted by his predecessors. The only positive action he made during his reign was to complete the temple to Jupiter. He also destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock which enraged the people of Rome. Tarquinius' rule was tyrannical and the people finally expelled him and replaced the monarchy with the Roman Republic in 510 B.C., when the king allowed Lucretia, a patrician noblewoman, to be raped by his son Sextus Tarquinius. The Senate voted to never again allow the rule of a king, and they transformed Rome into a republican government. How did Augustus use family to secure succession According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavian's father, Gaius Octavius, died while he was returning to Rome from Macedonia and before he could declare his candidacy for consulship. He was survived by two daughters both of whom were named Octavia, and Octavian. His mother Atia was the daughter of Julia, Gaius Julius Caesar's sister. Julius Caesar was therefore Octavian's grand uncle from his mother's side. Octavian delivered a funeral oration to his grandmother when he was twelve years old. After four years and having worn the gown of manhood, he received military prizes from Caesar commemorating his African triumph although Octavian was not present during the campaign because he was too young. In 46 B.C. he went to Spain to follow Caesar despite not having fully recovered from a severe illness. His adventure which included travelling through enemy territory and suffering a shipwreck with only a few companions, further endeared him to Caesar. Nicolaus made an account of Octavian's closeness to Caesar: "After this Caesar celebrated his triumphs for the Libyan War and the others which he had fought; and he ordered the young Caesar, whom he had now adopted, and who was in a way a son even by nature, on account of the closeness of their relationship, to follow his chariot, having bestowed upon him military decorations, as if he had been his aide (syskenon) the war. Likewise, at the sacrifices and when entering the temples he stationed him at his side and he ordered the others to yield precedence to him. Caesar already bore the rank of Imperator, which was the highest according to the Roman usage, and he was highly esteemed in the state. The boy, being his companion both at the theatre and at the banquets, and seeing that he conversed kindly with him, as if with his own son, and having by this time become somewhat more courageous, when many of his friends and citizens asked him to intercede for them with Caesar, in matters in which they were in need of aid, looking out for the opportune moment he respectfully asked and was successful; and he became of great value to many of his kinsfolk, for he took care never to ask a favor at an inopportune time, nor when it was annoying to Caesar. And he displayed not a few sparks of kindness and natural intelligence."1 Octavian had a very close relationship to his grand uncle who later adopted him as a son. Caesar also changed his will and made Octavian his sole heir and successor. This led many to slander Octavian after Caesar's death. Among them was Marcu Antonius, who claimed that Octavian became close to Caesar and was chosen as his successor because of sexual favours. After Caesar's murder during the Ides of March, Octavian thought about asking for help from Caesar's legions but decided it was premature and dangerous. Octavian's relationship with Caesar was very close, as Nicolaus wrote, "When Octavius heard this he was moved to tears and grief because of his memory and affection for the man, and his sorrow stirred anew. Then he stopped and waited for other letters from his mother and friends in Rome, although he did not disbelieve those who had reported the events, for he saw no reason why they should fabricate any falsehood."2 He returned to Rome and came upon his inheritance from Caesar despite doubts from his mother and objections from his step-father who was a former consul. He then entered into the Second Triumvirate with Marcus Antonius and Marcus Lepidus. How did Augustus use traditional rebulican institutions and activities to secure succession The Second Triumvirate lasted five years and was supported by law, unlike the First Triumvirate of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. The triumvirs then set to confiscate the properties of three thousand senators and two hundred equites and those who failed to escape forfeited their life. The action went beyond punishment of those connected with Caesar's assassination, and was largely motivated by the need to raise funds for the legions. After the defeat and suicide of Brutus and Cassius, Octavian went back to Rome while Marcus Antonius went to Egypt who allied himself with Cleopatra. Lepidus governed the province of Africa. Marcus Antonius had an affair with Cleopatra, with whom he had three children. He later went back to Rome to marry Octavia, Octavian's sister, who bore him two daughters. Antony later deserted Octavia and returned to Cleopatra. By this time, the Roman dominions were divided between Marcus Antonius in the east and Octavian in the west. Octavian consolidated his power in Rome and began building his network of allies . He also spread rumors that Antonius was becoming less of a Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs. This strategy worked and eventually the Roman Senate declared war on Cleopatra, using this pretext to avoid the semblance of another civil war. Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra were defeated in the Battle of Actium where both committed suicide. Caesarion, Julius Caesar's son by Cleopatra was murdered upon Octavian's orders. He was supposed to have said, "two Caesars are one too many". Tacitus wrote about Octavian's rise to power, "dropping the title of triumvir, and giving out that he was a Consul, and was satisfied with a tribune's authority for the protection of the people, Augustus won over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with cheap corn, and all men with the sweets of repose, and so grew greater by degrees, while he concentrated in himself the functions of the Senate, the magistrates, and the laws. He was wholly unopposed, for the boldest spirits had fallen in battle, or in the proscription, while the remaining nobles, the readier they were to be slaves, were raised the higher by wealth and promotion, so that, aggrandised by revolution, they preferred the safety of the present to the dangerous past."3 Rome's eastern dominions joined the west in swearing allegiance to Octavian after the Battle of Actium. He was now sole ruler of the Republic. However, many years of civil war has reduced Rome to a near state of lawlessness. However, the Republic was not amiable to having Octavian as a despotic ruler. Neither could Octavian relinquish his position because of the danger that the Roman generals would have civil wars among themselves. Octavian proceeded to disband his personal forces and held elections. He then took up the position of consul, and although he had already disbanded his personal forces, he legally became commander of all the Roman legions. Seutonius wrote of this predicament which Octavian faced: "He twice entertained thoughts of restoring the republic; first, immediately after he had crushed Antony, remembering that he had often charged him with being the obstacle to its restoration. The second time was in consequence of a long illness, when he sent for the magistrates and the senate to his own house, and delivered them a particular account of the state of the empire. But reflecting at the same time that it would be both hazardous to himself to return to the condition of a private person, and might be dangerous to the public to have the government placed again under the control of the people, he resolved to keep it in his own hands, whether with the better event or intention, is hard to say."4 In 27 B.C., Octavian returned power to the Senate. He also offered to give up his military authority over Egypt. Historians record that the suggestion that Octavian step down as consul led to rioting in Rome among the Plebeians. A compromised was agreed upon by Octavian's supporters and the Senate. This First Settlement gave Octavian proconsular authority over the western half of the Roman dominions and Syria. These territories had around seventy percent of all the Roman legions. He was also given the titles Augustus and Princeps. The title Augustus was more religious than political in nature, giving Octavian the stamp of authority which goes beyond any constitutional empowerment. Te title also served to demarcate the beginning of his benign reign as Augustus and his reign of terror as Octavian. The title Princeps designates him as "first citizen" or "first leader". The title had been conferred to those who have served the Republic well. Augustus as he was now known was also allowed to wear the civic crown of laurel and oak leaves. The crown was usually held above the head of Roman generals during a Triumph while the one holding the crown continuously repeats the words, "Remember, thou art mortal," as a reminder to the triumphant general. Augustus was not only awarded the crown but was also allowed to wear it on his head. These honours were all conveyed upon Augustus by a Senate which was filled by his supporters, after he and Marcus Antonius have purged it of conspirators in Caesar's assassination. Augustus renounced his consulship in 23 B.C. However, he retained his consular imperium which led to another compromise known as the Second Settlement. In this compromise, Augustus was granted the powers of a Tribune or tribunicia potestas. This allowed him to convene the Senate and people, present business before it, veto actions of the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and hold the right to speak first in any meeting. Augustus also exercised the powers of the Roman censor. This allowed him to scrutinize laws, supervise public morals, and hold a census to determine the membership of the Roman state. He involved himself in lawmaking and reforms, as Seutonius recorded: "Some laws he abrogated, and he made some new ones; such as the sumptuary law, that relating to adultery and the violation of chastity, the law against bribery in elections, and likewise that for the encouragement of marriage. Having been more severe in his reform of this law than the rest, he found the people utterly averse to submit to it, unless the penalties were abolished or mitigated, besides allowing an interval of three years after a wife's death, and increasing the premiums on marriage."5 This was the first time that the powers of the Tribune and Censor were combined in one person. Augustus was not even elected to the office of Censor. The people saw him as an admirable public servant, and his actions did much to prove them right as Seutonius wrote: "He was himself assiduous in his functions as a judge, and would sometimes prolong his sittings even into the night; if he were indisposed, his litter was placed before the tribunal, or he administered justice reclining on his couch at home; displaying always not only the greatest attention, but extreme lenity."6 Augustus was also granted sole imperium within the city of Rome. The armed forces of the city which used to be under the Praefects, were now under Augustus' authority. He also had the powers of imperium proconsulare maius or "imperium over all the proconsuls". This gave him the authority to interfere in any province and overturn the decision of the governor. Augustus failed to stand for election in 22 B.C. and the people who saw him as their defender feared that it was another effort by the Senate to force him from power. This resulted in a riot and only one consul was elected during the next three years, so that the other position would be left to Augustus. In 19 B.C., the Senate voted that Augustus be allowed to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate. This is sometimes considered as the Third Settlement. As a republican state, permanent and legal powers always remained with the Senate. The extraordinary powers given to Augustus were awarded as proconsul and magistrate. References: Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus, Translation by Hall, Clayton M. 1923. http://www.csun.edu/hcfll004/nicolaus.html Seutonius, The Divine Augustus, Translation of Thomson, A. and Worthington, R., Ancient History Sourcebook, New York. 1883. Tacitus, Publius Cornelius, The Annals, Found in The Complete Works of Tacitus, 1942,. http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals01.html Read More