Contribution of Western Civilization - Essay Example

1 ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS: I. The contribution to civilization of each of the following SUMERIANS: The Sumerians were inhabitants of southern Mesopotamia, where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers converge and today's modern societies owe a lot to them. They invented the wheel, from which the potter's wheel and the first wheeled vehicles and the mill wheels were derived. They also invented the plow and writing methods using the cuneiform, which really was a wedge-shaped writing etched on a wet, clay tablet, which later on was dried to form a permanent writing. With this, they were able to present the first epic known to mankind, which was the Gilgamesh. The concept of city-states began with them and they were known to practice some religious beliefs because of the ziggurats or the terraced temples. 2. AKKADIANS: The Akkadians who were natives of central Mesopotamia, had their own Akkadian writing using the cuneiform. Authors like Ziomkowski and Spielvogel claimed that they invented the stamps and instituted regular postal services and cadastral survey (3;6). Noble (18) said they gave us the first great warlord known to mankind and this was Sargon. 3. BABYLONIANS OR AMORITES: These inhabited lower Mesopotamia or near the Tigris-Euphrates delta. But with the conquest of the Akkadians and the Sumerians, King Hammurabi was able to carve a kingdom that unified almost the whole of Mesopotamia. Hammurabi then established the Code of Hammurabi, which was a list of judgments stressing fairness and justice among citizens. They then devised a calendar, consisting of 12 lunar months, with 30 days for each month and with 24 hours for each day. They also had a system of mathematics which was sexagesimal. They also dabbled in astronomy and medicine. 2 4. ASSYRIANS: These were warlike people in upper Mesopotamia who first utilized iron weapons and made use of chariots and cavalry. They invented battering rams and mobile towers to ensure victory in wars as well as what Noble(66) calls sapper work or excavation methods to undermine city walls of enemies. 5. NEO-BABYLONIANS OR CHALDEANS: Led by King Nebuchadnezzar, these accomplished people who made a mark in astronomy, agriculture and the construction of buildings such as The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, will always be remembered for the destruction of Jerusalem and the captivity of the Jews (Noble et al 44). 6. LYDIANS: These inhabited the now northwestern Turkey and they were noted for their wealth and the beauty of its capital Sardis. Under King Croesus, they invented coinage and its minting using gold, silver and electrum. They were also the first to put up retail shops. 7. PERSIANS: These were people, who together with the Medes, occupied present day Iran. They will always be remembered because of their great warrior kings Cyrus the Great, Darius the Great and Xerxes who built one of the largest empire in the world. They also brought Zoroastrianism and a system of governance that divided the empire into 20 provinces, each ruled by a satrap and a system of road building as well as improvement of trade and a barter economy. 8. EGYPTIANS: These people were superb engineers, architects and builders. Denizens of the Nile River delta and oases, they constructed 35 pyramids, temples, obelisks and palaces. They established the art of mummification and the belief of immortality after death. They invented hieroglyphic writing on papyrus and the use of Rosetta stone to encrypt these writings. They devised irrigation and agricultural techniques and an efficient administration techniques under a vizier as well as the concept of Ma'at (Noble 25) or justice and the empowerment of 3 of women. Thus, Hatshepsut and Cleopatra became pharaohs. 9. HITTITES: These people were from north-central Anatolia (Turkey) and they were famous for their manufacture and use of iron artifacts including iron smelting and the Hittite laws and mythology. They also established the first constitutional monarchy. 10. PHOENICIANS: These inhabitants of today's Lebanon were the greatest seafarers, traders and explorers of the ancient world. They were also the first to establish colonies in Spain, Crete, Malta, Carthage etc. They exported among others, the famous cedars of Lebanon . 11. CANAANITES: These occupied the present-day Israel and Lebanon. They devised a simplified alphabet which was the precursor of western alphabets. Like the Phoenicians, they were also seafarers and traders. They built the famous Temple of Jerusalem. 12. ISRAELIS OR HEBREWS: Their legacy is their monotheistic faith and their belief in Yahweh. Thus,Christianity could not have existed without this faith and the 10 Commandments. 13. SYRIANS: They made simple the Phoenician alphabet and replaced the Hebrew language with Aramaic. Some authors call Syria the "birthplace of Christianity" because this was where the apostles first preached Christianity and from where they started their missions. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) started as a religious war between Protestants and Catholics and involved most of the countries in Europe. The battlefield was mainly in Germany with the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, Spain and southern Germany on one side while the other protagonists were the Lutheran Sweden, Denmark, Palatine-Bohemian (Czech), northern Germany, England, Holland and Catholic France which believed that the power of the Holy Roman Empire should be curbed. Religious tensions occurred because the Treaty of Augsburg failed to satisfy both sides and caused the formation of the warring Catholic League and the 4 Lutheran Evangelical Union. The war formally started with the Defenestration of Prague, where 2 of King Ferdinand II of Bohemia's minions were thrown out of the palace window. The Evangelical Union then staged a rebellion and replaced Ferdinand with Frederick V of Bavaria, a Calvinist. Ferdinand, who replaced Rudolf II as Holy Roman Emperor defeated the Protestants but the king of Denmark and Norway, Christian IV, jealous of the Austrian Habsburgs' power, invaded Saxony. Ferdinand's allies defeated Christian IV, who accepted the Treaty of Lubeck. Goaded by France's Cardinal Richelieu, King Gustav Adolph of Sweden successfully fought the Catholic army at the Battle of Breitenfeld (Leipzig) but at the battle of Lutzen (Germany), he perished and was replaced by Duke Bernhard who suffered defeat at Nordlingen (Germany) and had to accept the Peace of Prague. The war continued however, because France allied itself with Sweden and Protestant Germany, and declared war against the Habsburg ally, Spain. The alliance won several victories and in the end Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II was forced to accept the Peace of Westphalia (Oct. 24, 1648) which weakened the Empire and strengthened the position of France as the main power in Europe. 5 REFERENCES Noble, Duane & Strauss, Barry & Neuschel, Kristen & Roberts, David & Cohen, William. Western Civilization. The Continuing Experiment. Brief Edition. Boston: Houghton- Miflin Co., 2001. Spielvogel, Jackson. IE Western Civilization. New York: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005. Ziomkowski, Robert. CLEP Western Civilization. Research and Education Association, 2005. Read More