The Development of the American Public School - Essay Example

Running Head: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOL The Development of the American Public School [The [The Name of the Institution] The Development of the American Public School Introduction About the history of our Educational System William Ellery Channing once said, "It is a greater work to educate a child, in the true and larger sense of the word, than to rule a state" (Inspirational, 2003). The education system in the United States has been progressing slowly, but consistently since early colonization. However, every system will inevitably face problems in developing. Throughout the history of the American public schools system, there have been uncountable social, ethical, and financial struggles which have established our present organization. From the beginning of time, people have understood that knowledge is power. During early colonial years several laws were passed in favor of making education more common in society. The Massachusetts Education Law of 1647 was amongst those laws passed, requiring towns of fifty families to hire a schoolmaster who would teach their children to read and write (History, 2004). Additionally, towns of a hundred families were required to have a grammar schoolmaster, which created consistency in quality of education (History, 2004). It was at this point in our nation's educational history that formal schooling as we know it became more valuable, as well as desirable. Author Robin Cook stated, "Education is more than a luxury; it is a responsibility that society owes to itself" (Inspirational, 2003). Education became more of a social responsibility and educators were formally hired for the sole purpose of teaching the youth of a budding nation. Perhaps even more surprising, considering previous practice, is that they were paid to do so, either by the government or individual families (History, 2004). Formal schooling was becoming more of a personal responsibility and a priority taken seriously (History, 2004). The years following the new legislative direction, some families sent their children to "Dame" Schools, which were set up in the homes of women in the community. Dame schools were widely popular for those who were unable to send their children to the one room schoolhouses. These women had both the time and inclination to teach students of all ages and levels and worked in exchange for a meager allowance, such as food, miniscule stipends, or practical supplies (History, 2004). Also, traveling Schoolmasters traversed across states to various towns to educate the children in an effort to contribute to the dream of social harmony via knowledge and literacy. Usually, families of the community would take turns housing and feeding their schoolmaster for the duration of his stay. During the late 1700s and early 1800s, Thomas Jefferson's influence on American public education was astronomical. Though Jefferson is well known for the Declaration of Independence and his presidency, he also played a very large role in laying the ground work for the Public Schools system that we are fortunate to have today (Conant, 1962). According to Jefferson, "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and will never be" (Inspirational, 2003). In the late 1770s Jefferson served in the House of Delegates as part of the General Assembly of Virginia (History, 2004). While in the Assembly, he introduced a bill that would create a free system of tax-supported elementary education for all except slaves (History, 2004). He proposed the idea of free public education to take place over a period of at least 3 years for every white child. If parents wished to continue their child's education beyond 3 years time, they could then begin paying for it themselves (Conant, 1962). In September of 1817 Jefferson proposed the "Act for Establishing Elementary Schools". His plan was to have schools which were locally controlled and supported largely by local taxes. In a speech he gave Jefferson explained: At this school shall be received and instructed gratis, every infant of competent age who has not already had three years' schooling. And it is declared and enacted, that no person unborn or under the age of twelve years at the passing of this act, and who is compos mentis, shall, after the age of fifteen years, be a citizen of this commonwealth until he or she can read readily in some tongue, native or acquired (Conant, 1962). In Jefferson's opinion, education was so important to the success of a society, he spent much of his life attempting to convince others to share his beliefs. Finally by 1860, free education finally became widely accepted. Prior to the late 1700s, schooling was highly recommended, but it was the responsibility of each colony individually (History, 2004). In an effort to consolidate schools and make education mandatory, Congress established the Land Ordinance of 1785. This ordinance set aside an area of each township, known as Section Sixteen for the occupation of public schools (History 12). Two years later, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was passed by Congress. This ordinance provided land in the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley regions for settlement, which eventually divided into five states: Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, Ohio, and Illinois (History, 2004). Along with these new settlements, came new families, resulting in the need for locations in which to educate the children. A portion of the Ordinance stated, "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind...schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged" (History, 2004) People began to feel that education was necessary to become a good citizen and to have a strong government. More and more children were encouraged to go to school, creating a demand for additional schoolhouses and teachers as well. Instead of township appointed teachers, they were subsidized to an extent by the government, while the rest of the funds were supported by state taxes. In addition, schools began teaching more that just religion, reading, and spelling. Sciences became and important part of a new and radical curriculum, and an intellectual boom began to sweep the developing nation (Conant, 1962). Soon, the federal government was able to create a public school system with a purpose of teaching all ages of children, especially in the new and rapidly growing West. In the mid 1800s, public opinion centralized around the need to enforce mandatory attendance for all children. The Compulsory Attendance Act of 1852, passed by the state of Massachusetts, was the first general law showing concern for the well-being of children. The law postulated mandatory attendance for children between the ages of eight and fourteen for at least three months out of each year, of these twelve weeks at least six were required to be consecutive. The penalty applied for not sending a child to school was a fine no greater than $20.00 and the violators were prosecuted by the city (Tyack, 2003). Although the local school committee did not have the authority to enforce the law, it certainly maintained the idea of the importance of school before the public and assisted to form a strong public opinion in favor of education. Finally, by 1918 all states had passed some form of Massachusetts compulsory attendance law (History, 2004). Prior to the attendance laws, the state of Connecticut enacted a law in 1842 which stated that no child under fifteen could be employed in any business in the state without proof of attendance in school for at least three months out of twelve. The penalty for failure to comply with this law was $25.00 and the business was made financially responsible for the fine. Through this system of fines, businesses were forced to be socially responsible for the education of children as well (History, 2004). The educational aspirations Americans hold for their children have never been higher than they are today. The demand for education is contagious and readily transferred from generation to generation. Parents tend to want a higher quality of schooling for their children than they, themselves had access to. English teacher Horace Mann articulates, "Education, then, beyond all other devices of human origin, is the great equalizer of the conditions of man, - the balance-wheel of the social machinery" (Heart Quotes, 2004). The social, ethical, and financial strife that the American Educational system has encountered in its history are the deep roots of our current schools system in the United States. While the future of our educational system is unknown, the leaps of progress which have taken place in the last 200 years of its existence may give us an idea of its direction. In the US, religious institutions heavily influenced education. Otherwise, the teaching of skills and culture was predominantly transmitted through the family unit. Religious institutions made a strong commitment to education in the new settlement and their role was rather limited to preparing children for a life of service in the church or some form of bureaucracy which was not yet well developed (Bowles, 1998). Over time, the educational focus was on achieving the goals of piety, civility and learning (Cremin, 1990). Colonial education in America centered on teaching respect for authority, maintaining social order and religious piety. This is clearly evident in the Puritan community of New England, which enacted the "Old Deluder Satan Law" in 1647, requiring communities to establish and support schools. In some ways this is plainly the beginning of public school in the American education (Spring, 1990). Proponents of early public schools in the US were of the opinion that schools could perform much of the work that was originally in the domain of the family unit and the church. For example, the socialization and concrete skills that a child learned through his interaction in the home and as an apprentice could be learned at school. In addition to this, however, schools would emphasize, "discipline, punctuality, acceptance of authority outside the family, and individual accountability for one's own work" (Bowles, 1998). Another proponent of public schooling was educational leader, Horace Mann, whose vision of the common school resulted in the development of a public school system in most states by the 1860's. Mann saw the common school as promoting economic development in the industrial age (Spring, 1990). As well, there was John Dewey who saw public schooling as central to his progressive community schools. Edward Thorndike's work was also developed in this time frame. In essence, Thorndike mechanized methods that had been traditional classroom practice. He believed that the ideal social organization is one in which people are scientifically selected for their social roles through testing (Spring, 1990). In this manner, the scientification of education led to a decontextualization of the learning experience for children, a stealthy movement that separated families and their culture, from schools. This is an interesting development since one of the original aims of education and schooling seemed to be posited on replicating what transpired in the household (Bowles, 1998). Educational reformers supported public education as one that would serve the educational goals of all parents for their children. Thorndike and his followers essentially weakened the linkage between parents and schools, putting it into the venue of experts and out of the reach of parents (Rippa, 1997). In particular, as Bowles (1998) notes, out of the reach of poorer parents. As well, states began to require licensing of teachers around the year 1900, with criteria building to require a five year degree by the twentieth century. The increasing pressure to educate and professionalize teachers was felt to widen the gap between teachers and parents on both social and cultural levels; lower class parents were reported as hesitant to enter their children's schools, given their perception that the schools belonged to the middle and upper class professionals (Shipman, 1987). Bernard and Mann, nineteenth century educational leaders, also pushed for the bureaucratization of public schools and the professionalism of teachers. Mann took the stand that parents did not possess the knowledge, time or talents necessary to help a child to meet the growing challenges of the industrial world. Mann reasoned that the task of educating children should be turned over to professionals hired by the state. The purpose of bureaucratizing schools was to ensure equity and systems management. Along with the increasing thrust toward professionalism of administrators and teachers, the impact was to further separate parents from schools. Contemporary Environments and Missions It is a daunting task to sift through all the literature on the education system in the United States. There are so many different lenses through which one can look at the public high school system to determine what the contemporary environment looks like and what appear to be the central missions of schools. Indeed, several writers (Dreeben, 1997; Meyer & Rowan, 1995; Miles, 1994) discuss emergent patterns characterizing public education in the US in different ways. That is, they tend to focus on different issues in public education, thereby signifying that there exist several ideas about what is important and how each may view the role and purpose of public schooling. Following Bowles' (1998) train of thought, schooling in the US is unequal and it propels the reproduction of the division of labor. The inequalities in education, he asserts, become more important with the growing need of well-educated workers. That is, the better education one is able to get through schooling, the better equipped she will be to find a place for herself in this society. Unfortunately, children from well-to-do families have more opportunities to do better in school than children from poorer circumstances. Students from a more financially-advantaged household would most likely receive the training at home that aids in making them more successful at school (Coleman, 1998). In addition, schools in middle-class and upper middle-class areas have more financial backing than schools in poorer neighborhoods. Therefore, poorer children have fewer resources upon which they can rely. Teachers in more advantaged neighborhoods make more money than teachers in working-class an environment, which influences teachers' time and attitude toward being less. Children from working-class environments or poorer families are expected not to do as well in school. Lowered expectations on children yield lowered results. Not all critiques or the education system are removed from the administration of educational institutions. Meyer & Rowan (1995) are more concerned with the actual structure of these organizations and how they are set up or managed. According to Meyer & Rowan (1995), educational organizations in the US lack close internal coordination. That is, the structure of the school is detached from what is taught in the school's own classrooms. In fact, the authors demonstrate that some governing bodies actually have marginal control, at best. Meyer & Rowan owe the lack of close internal coordination on several transgressions that take place in the school system. For example, educational organizations tend to avoid careful monitoring of teachers while maintaining confidence in their work. Somehow, an increase of teacher commitment occurs. It also means that there is an assumption being made about whether the teacher will adhere to socially defined and appropriate goals. Their research also shows, however, that teachers become concerned when administrators pay too much attention to what teachers are doing.( Riehl, 1996) Dreeben (1997) focuses his attention on the ways in which the act of public schooling contributes to students' learning of societal norms. Public schools are organizations in which socialization takes place. Dreeben insists that the characteristic pattern of socialization within the school setting is different than that of the family and home. The differences he lists include the nature of the relationship between the child or student and the caregiver, as well as the content of what is to be learned, the physical environment in which learning takes place (that is, the number and ages of those who are learning with the child), and the manner through which advancement takes place. According to Dreeben, the social norms that children are learning at home and at school can be at odds with each other. The odds are witnessed in the individuality of the child at home versus at school and equity for students which may be easier to establish in a school setting than at home. Dreeben also mentions the potential for differences to occur in the ways in which students may be encouraged to work individually at school while they may be taught to collaborate with others at home and in later life when working. Agents and constituencies Imagine the scenario: Parents from a community elect a school board that, in turn, appoints or elects a superintendent. The superintendent understands where his support originated and acts in the best interest of the community in which he was elected. I asked several people to explain to me where to find the locus of control of power and decision making in the American school system. In my not so random sample, I had an overwhelming response that was akin to the scenario above. This sentiment is reinforced in some of the literature. Bureaucratizing schools is based on increasing professionalism of administrators and teachers. It seems, however, that parents were cognizant of the separation seemingly caused by the structural changes. Those had the means, worked towards bridging that gap. According to Johnson (1990) educational reform in the 80's took the form of school restructuring, in which site-based management included the participation of local parents on planning boards, reestablishing the role of families and communities in schools. There is a movement toward parental choice in selecting the school their children will attend, and using a voucher system that alleges equity and choice in selection. Times are changing, however. As alluded to in the Introduction, a major current working its way through the education system in the United States is the recent centralization of power and decision making from local educators and parents to state governments. Miles (1994) research indicates that they are many agents that influence change in education systems. In fact, the major influential agents have changed over time. In the thirties, the community seemed to exert more pressure and demands on school systems than administrators or even teachers. More often than not, the pressure to change an education system came from outside the institution. Authority figures, cites Miles, seem to have the most crucial role in influencing and applying pressure that results in reform or innovation. In particular, their force is directed and related toward more structural changes, rather than a curricular change. The hierarchical structure of the education system allows administrators to have more power and enough power to solve particular problems that are usually affiliated with change and innovation. Administrative And Organizational Responses Educational change seems to be directed at the improvement or betterment of the educational client-base and its contributors. Keith Lewin (1996) discusses the importance of values on educational change. First, it should be noted that an emerging view of educational change is one that is "client-centered, purposive and evolutionary". Lewin takes a strong position and articulates that a focus on the amelioration of an education system is a value stance which must be taken into consideration when weighing any reform in education. He notes, "Innovations where consultation with clients is marginalized and their interests and motivations are recognized rarely lead to durable change which is recognized positively by clients". This suggests, then, that the process of change in education should take into account, or value, the participation of all of those involved rather than focusing on being prescriptive and imposing upon the clients. A purposive change in education recommends that much has to be investigated in terms of what has transpired in the past and the future objectives of any proposed plan. The actual plan for change is of the utmost importance as it provides evidence in which one can learn from the past and shared experiences of the clients and contributors and, therefore, make substantial and informed decisions about what should be done to better the system. Evolutionary change is the process of building upon what has been done and moving beyond contemporary practices. References Bowles, Samuel. 1998: "Unequal education and the reproduction of the division of labor." In Schooling in a Corporate Society: The Political Economy of Education in America, 38-66, edited by M. Conroy. New York: McKay. Butts, R., & Cremin, L.1993: A History of Education in American Culture. New York, N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Coleman, James. (1998): "The Concept of Equality of Educational Opportunity." Harvard Educational Review 38 (1), 7-22. Conant, James B. Thomas Jefferson and the Development of American Public Education. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 1962. Cremin, L., (1990). American Education. NY: Harper & Row, 1990. Dreeben, Robert. "The Contribution of Schooling to the Learning of Norms." Harvard Educational Review, 37 (2), (1997): 23-49. Heart Quotes. Education. 2004. 4 March 2005.Accessed on November 19, 2007 from . History of American Education: University of Notre Dam. Web Project. 2004. 5 March 2005 . Inspirational Quotes. Quotes about education: 2003. November 19, 2007 from Lewin, K. & Stuart J. S.(eds).1996: Educational Innovation in Developing Countries; Case Studies of Change Makers. New York: MacMillan. Mann, Dale. "Authority and School Improvement: An Essay on "Little King" Leadership." Teacher's College Record, 88 (1986), 41-52. Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. P. "The structure of educational organizations." In Environments and Organizations, edited by M. W. Meyer. Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1995. Miles, Matthew. Innovation in Education. New York: Teachers College Press, 1994. Riehl, C., & Sipple, J. W. "Making the Most of Time and Talent: Secondary School Organizational Climates, Teaching Task Environments, and Teacher Commitment." American Educational Research Journal, 33 (4), (1996): 873-901. Rippa, S. Education in a Free Society: An American History. 6th ed. 1997. Spring, J. The American School: 1642 - 2000. N.Y.: Longman Publishing, 2000. Tyack, David. Seeking Common Ground: Public Schools in a Diverse Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003. Read More