A Basic Assumption of the Freudian Theory - Research Paper Example

Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud) Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939), Austrian doctor, neurologist, and founder of psychoanalysis. Freud's main contribution was to create an entirely new approach to the understanding of human personality by his demonstration of the existence and force of the unconscious. In addition, he founded a new medical discipline and formulated basic therapeutic procedures that in modified form are applied widely in the present-day treatment of neuroses and psychoses through psychotherapy. Although never accorded full recognition during his lifetime and often questioned by others in the field since then, Freud is generally acknowledged as one of the great creative minds of modern times. Early Background and Studies Freud was born in Freiberg (now Prebor, Czech Republic), on May 6, 1856, and educated at the University of Vienna. When he was three years old his family, fleeing from the anti-Semitic riots then raging in Freiberg, moved to Leipzig. Shortly thereafter, the family settled in Vienna, where Freud remained for most of his life. Although his ambition from childhood had been a career in law, Freud decided to become a medical student shortly before he entered the University of Vienna in 1873. Inspired by the scientific investigations of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, he was driven by an intense desire to study natural science and to solve some of the challenging problems confronting contemporary scientists. In his third year at the University of Vienna Freud began research work on the central nervous system. This was conducted in the physiology laboratory under the direction of the German doctor Ernst Wilhelm von Brьcke. Freud found neurological research so engrossing that he neglected the prescribed courses and as a result remained in medical school three years longer than was normally required to qualify as a doctor. In 1881, after completing a year of compulsory military service, he received his medical degree. Unwilling to give up his experimental work, however, he remained at the university as a demonstrator in the physiology laboratory. In 1883, at von Brьcke's urging, he reluctantly abandoned theoretical research to gain practical experience. The Influence of Charcot Freud spent three years at the General Hospital of Vienna, devoting himself successively to psychiatry, dermatology, and nervous diseases. In 1885, following his appointment as a lecturer in neuropathology at the University of Vienna, he left his post at the hospital. Later the same year he was awarded a government grant enabling him to spend 19 weeks in Paris as a student of the French neurologist Jean Charcot. As the director of the clinic at the Salpкtriиre mental hospital, Charcot was then treating nervous disorders by the use of hypnotic suggestion. Freud's studies under Charcot, which centred largely on hysteria, influenced him greatly in channelling his interests to psychopathology—the scientific study of mental disorders. In 1886 Freud established a private practice in Vienna specializing in nervous diseases. He met with violent opposition from the Viennese medical profession because of his strong support of Charcot's unorthodox views on hysteria and hypnotherapy. The resentment he incurred was to delay any acceptance of his subsequent findings on the origins of neurosis. The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis Freud's first published work, On Aphasia, appeared in 1891; it was a study of the neurological disorder in which the ability to pronounce words or to name common objects is lost as a result of organic brain disease. His final work in neurology was an article, “Infantile Cerebral Paralysis”; this was written for an encyclopedia in 1897 only at the insistence of the editor, since by this time Freud was occupied largely with psychological rather than physiological explanations for mental disorders. His subsequent writings were devoted entirely to that field, which he had named psychoanalysis in 1896. Hysteria Freud's new orientation was heralded by his collaborative work on hysteria with the Viennese doctor Josef Breuer. The work was presented in 1893 in a preliminary paper and two years later in an expanded form under the title Studies on Hysteria. In this work the symptoms of hysteria were ascribed to manifestations of undischarged emotional energy associated with forgotten psychic traumas. The therapeutic procedure involved the use of a hypnotic state in which the patient was led to recall and re-enact the traumatic experience, thus discharging by catharsis the emotions causing the symptoms. The publication of this work marked the beginning of psychoanalytic theory formulated on the basis of clinical observations. The Unconscious During the period from 1895 to 1900 Freud developed many of the concepts that were later incorporated into psychoanalytic practice and doctrine. Soon after publishing the studies on hysteria he abandoned the use of hypnosis as a cathartic procedure and replaced it by the investigation of the patient's spontaneous flow of thoughts—called free association—to reveal the unconscious mental processes at the root of the neurotic disturbance. In his clinical observations Freud found evidence for the mental mechanisms of repression and resistance. He described repression as a device operating unconsciously to make the memory of painful or threatening events inaccessible to the conscious mind. Resistance is defined as the unconscious defence against awareness of repressed experiences in order to avoid the resulting anxiety. He traced the operation of unconscious processes, using the free associations of the patient to guide him in the interpretation of dreams and slips of speech (“Freudian slips”—which Freud claimed were revelations of unconscious wishes). Controversial Contributions Analysis of dreaming led to his theories of infantile sexuality and of the so-called Oedipus complex, which constitutes a purported erotic attachment of the child for the parent of the opposite sex, together with hostile feelings towards the other parent. This aligned to the emphasis on the biological bases for human behaviour—particularly sex and aggression—were among Freud's most controversial theories. The term “Freudian” is often used in connection with these theories, many of which were to become major concepts in psychiatry. They were infused with rich symbolism, and were in the main preoccupied with reconciling the conflict between biological factors of human existence and what Freud believed were the civilizing aspects of human behaviour: aesthetics, intellectual capacity, and religion. Terms often thought of as Freudian, such as id and ego, are now no longer regarded as exclusive to Freudian theory. In these years he also developed the theory of transference—the process by which emotional attitudes, established originally towards parental figures in childhood, are transferred in later life to others. The end of this period was marked by the appearance of Freud's most important work, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900). Here Freud analysed many of his own dreams recorded in a three-year period of self-analysis which began in 1897. This work expounds all the fundamental concepts underlying psychoanalytic technique and doctrine. In 1902 Freud was appointed a full professor at the University of Vienna. This honour was granted not in recognition of his contributions but as a result of the efforts of a highly influential patient. The medical world still regarded his work with hostility, and his next writings, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901) and Three Contributions to the Theory of Sexuality (1905), only increased this antagonism. As a result, Freud continued to work virtually alone in what he termed “splendid isolation”. By 1906, however, Freud had a small number of pupils and followers—including the Austrian psychiatrists William Stekel and Alfred Adler, the Austrian psychologist Otto Rank, the American psychiatrist Abraham Brill, and the Swiss psychiatrists Eugen Bleuler and Carl Gustav Jung. Other notable associates, who joined the circle in 1908, were the Hungarian psychiatrist Sбndor Ferenczi and the British psychiatrist Ernest Jones. Theory of Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis, name applied to a specific method of investigating unconscious mental processes and to a form of psychotherapy. The term refers, as well, to the systematic structure of psychoanalytic theory, which is based on the relation of conscious and unconscious psychological processes. The technique of psychoanalysis and much of the psychoanalytic theory based on its application were developed by Sigmund Freud. His work concerning the structure and the functioning of the human mind had far-reaching significance, both practically and scientifically. The Unconscious The first of Freud's innovations was his recognition of unconscious psychiatric processes that follow laws different from those that govern conscious experience. Under the influence of the unconscious, thoughts and feelings that belong together may be shifted or displaced out of context; two disparate ideas or images may be condensed into one; thoughts may be dramatized in the form of images rather than expressed as abstract concepts; and certain objects may be represented symbolically by images of other objects, although the resemblance between the symbol and the original object may be vague or far-fetched. The laws of logic, indispensable for conscious thinking, do not apply to these unconscious mental productions. Recognition of these modes of operation in unconscious mental processes made possible the understanding of such previously incomprehensible psychological phenomena as dreaming. Through analysis of unconscious processes, Freud saw dreams as serving to protect sleep against disturbing impulses arising from within and related to early life experiences. Thus, unacceptable impulses and thoughts, called the latent dream content, are transformed into a conscious, although no longer immediately comprehensible, experience called the manifest dream. Knowledge of these unconscious mechanisms permits the analyst to reverse the so-called dream work—the process by which the latent dream is transformed into the manifest dream, and through dream interpretation, to recognize its underlying meaning. Instinctual Drives A basic assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious conflicts involve instinctual impulses, or drives, that originate in childhood. As these unconscious conflicts are recognized by the patient through analysis, his or her adult mind can find solutions that were unattainable to the immature mind of the child. This depiction of the role of instinctual drives in human life is a unique feature of Freudian theory. According to Freud's doctrine of infantile sexuality, adult sexuality is an end product of a complex process of development which begins in childhood, involves a variety of body functions or areas (oral, anal, and genital zones), and corresponds to various stages in the relation of the child to adults, especially to parents. Of crucial importance is the so-called Oedipal period, occurring at about four to six years of age, because at this stage of development the child for the first time becomes capable of an emotional attachment to the parent of the opposite sex that is similar to the adult's relationship to a mate; the child simultaneously reacts as a rival to the parent of the same sex. Physical immaturity dooms the child's desires to frustration and his or her first step towards adulthood to failure. Intellectual immaturity further complicates the situation because it makes children afraid of their own fantasies. The extent to which a child overcomes these emotional upheavals and to which these attachments, fears, and fantasies continue to live on in the unconscious greatly influences later life, especially love relationships. The conflicts occurring in the earlier developmental stages are no less significant as a formative influence, because these problems represent the earliest prototypes of such basic human situations as dependency on others and relationship to authority. Also basic in moulding the personality of the individual is the behaviour of the parents towards the child during these stages of development. However, the fact that the child reacts, not only to objective reality, but also to fantasy distortions of reality, greatly complicates even the best-intentioned educational efforts. Id, Ego, and Superego The effort to clarify the bewildering number of interrelated observations uncovered by psychoanalytic exploration led to the development of a model of the structure of the psychic system. Three functional systems are distinguished that are conveniently designated as the id, ego, and superego. The first system refers to the sexual and aggressive tendencies that arise from the body, as distinguished from the mind. Freud called these tendencies Triebe, which literally means “drives”, but which is often inaccurately translated as “instincts” to indicate their innate character. These inherent drives claim immediate satisfaction, which is experienced as pleasurable; the id is therefore dominated by the pleasure principle. In his later writings, Freud tended more towards psychological rather than biological conceptualization of the drives. How the conditions for satisfaction are to be brought about is the task of the second system, the ego, which is the domain of such functions as perception, thinking, and motor control that can accurately assess environmental conditions. In order to fulfil its function of adaptation, or reality testing, the ego must be capable of enforcing the postponement of satisfaction of the instinctual impulses originating in the id. To defend itself against unacceptable impulses, the ego develops specific psychic means known as defence mechanisms. These include repression, the exclusion of impulses from conscious awareness; projection, the process of ascribing to others one's own unacknowledged desires; and reaction formation, the establishment of a pattern of behaviour directly opposed to a strong unconscious need. Such defence mechanisms are put into operation whenever anxiety signals a danger that the original unacceptable impulses may reemerge. An id impulse becomes unacceptable, not only as a result of a temporary need for postponing its satisfaction until suitable reality conditions can be found, but more often because of a prohibition imposed on the individual by others—originally the parents. The totality of these demands and prohibitions constitutes the major content of the third system—the superego—the function of which is to control the ego in accordance with the internalized standards imposed by parental figures. If the demands of the superego are not fulfilled, the person may feel shame or guilt. Because the superego, in Freudian theory, originates in the struggle to overcome the Oedipal conflict, it has a power akin to an instinctual drive, is in part unconscious, and can give rise to feelings of guilt not justified by any conscious transgression. The ego, having to mediate among the demands of the id, the superego, and the outside world, may not be strong enough to reconcile these conflicting forces. The more the ego is impeded in its development because of being enmeshed in its earlier conflicts, called fixations or complexes, or the more it reverts to earlier satisfactions and archaic modes of functioning, known as regression, the greater is the likelihood of succumbing to these pressures. Unable to function normally, it can maintain its limited control and integrity only at the price of developing neurotic symptoms, through which the tensions are expressed. Anxiety A cornerstone of modern psychoanalytic theory and practice is the concept of anxiety, which institutes appropriate mechanisms of defence against certain danger situations. These danger situations, as described by Freud, are the fear of abandonment by, or the loss of, the loved one (the object); the risk of losing the object's love; the danger of retaliation and punishment; and the hazard of reproach by the superego. Therefore, symptoms, character and impulse disorders, what Freud called perversions, and sublimations all represent compromise—different forms of adaptation that the ego tries to achieve through more or less successfully reconciling the different conflicting forces in the mind. International Acceptance Increasing recognition of the psychoanalytic movement made possible the formation in 1910 of a worldwide organization called the International Psychoanalytic Association. As the movement spread, gaining new adherents throughout Europe and the United States, Freud was troubled by the dissension that arose among members of his original circle. Most disturbing were the defections from the group of Adler and Jung, each of whom developed a different theoretical basis for disagreement with Freud's emphasis on the sexual origin of neurosis. Freud met these setbacks by developing further his basic concepts and by elaborating his own views in many publications and lectures. After the onset of World War I Freud devoted little time to clinical observation and concentrated on the application of his theories to the interpretation of religion, mythology, art, and literature. In 1923 he was stricken with cancer of the jaw, which necessitated constant, painful treatment in addition to many surgical operations. Despite his physical suffering he continued his literary activity for the next 16 years, writing mostly on cultural and philosophical problems. Among his other works are Totem and Taboo (1913), The Ego and the Id (1923), New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1933), and Moses and Monotheism (1939). When the Germans occupied Austria in 1938, Freud was persuaded by friends to escape with his family to England. He died in London on September 23, 1939. Psychoanalytic Schools Various psychoanalytic schools have adopted other names for their doctrines to indicate deviations from Freudian theory. Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung, one of the earliest pupils of Freud, eventually created a school that he preferred to call analytical psychology. Like Freud, Jung used the concept of the libido; however, to him it meant not only sexual drives, but a composite of all creative instincts and impulses, and the entire motivating force of human conduct. According to Jung, the unconscious is composed of two parts; the personal unconscious, which contains the results of the individual's entire experience, and the collective unconscious, the reservoir of the experience of the human race. In the collective unconscious exist a number of primordial images, or archetypes, common to all individuals of a given country or historical era. Archetypes take the form of bits of intuitive knowledge or apprehension and normally exist only in the collective unconscious of the individual. When the conscious mind contains no images, as in sleep, or when the consciousness is caught off guard, the archetypes start functioning. Archetypes are primitive modes of thought and tend to personify natural processes in terms of such mythological concepts as good and evil spirits, fairies, and dragons. The mother and the father also serve as prominent archetypes. An important concept in Jung's theory is the existence of two basically different types of personality, mental attitude, and function. When the libido and the individual's general interest are turned outwards towards people and objects of the external world, the person is said to be extroverted. When the reverse is true, and libido and interest are centred on the individual, the person is said to be introverted. In a completely normal individual these two tendencies alternate, neither dominating, but usually the libido is directed mainly in one direction or the other; as a result, two personality types are recognizable. Jung rejected Freud's distinction between the ego and superego and recognized a portion of the personality, somewhat similar to the superego, that he called the persona. This consists of what people appear to be to others, in contrast to what they actually are. The persona is the role individuals choose to play in life, the total impression they wish to make on the outside world. Alfred Adler Alfred Adler, another of Freud's pupils, differed from both Freud and Jung in stressing that the motivating force in human life is the sense of inferiority, which begins as soon as an infant is able to comprehend the existence of other people who are better able to care for themselves and cope with their environment. From the moment the feeling of inferiority is established, the child strives to overcome it. Because inferiority is intolerable, the compensatory mechanisms set up by the mind may get out of hand, resulting in self-centred neurotic attitudes, overcompensations, and a retreat from the real world and its problems. Adler laid particular stress on inferiority feelings arising from what he regarded as the three most important relationships: those between the individual and work, friends, and loved ones. Avoiding feelings of inferiority in these relationships leads the individual to adopt a goal in life that is often not realistic and is frequently expressed as an unreasoning will to power and dominance, leading to every type of antisocial behaviour from bullying and boasting to political tyranny. Adler believed that analysis can foster a sane and rational “community feeling” that is constructive rather than destructive. Otto Rank Another student of Freud, Otto Rank, introduced a new theory of neurosis, attributing all neurotic disturbances to the primary trauma of birth. In his later writings he described individual development as a progression from complete dependence on the mother and family, to a physical independence coupled with intellectual dependence on society, and finally to complete intellectual and psychological emancipation. Rank also laid great importance on the will, defined as “a positive guiding organization and integration of self, which utilizes creatively as well as inhibits and controls the instinctual drives”. Other Psychoanalytic Schools Later noteworthy modifications of psychoanalytic theory include those of the psychoanalysts Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, and Harry Stack Sullivan. The theories of Fromm lay particular emphasis on the concept that society and the individual are not separate and opposing forces, that the nature of society is determined by its historical background, and that the needs and desires of individuals are formed largely by their society. As a result, Fromm believed, the fundamental problem of psychoanalysis and psychology is not to resolve conflicts between fixed and unchanging instinctive drives in the individual and the fixed demands and laws of society, but to bring about harmony and an understanding of the relationship between the individual and society. Fromm also stressed the importance to individuals of developing the ability to use fully their mental, emotional, and sensory powers. Horney worked primarily in the field of therapy and the nature of neuroses, which she defined as of two types: situation neuroses and character neuroses. Situation neuroses arise from the anxiety attendant on a single conflict, such as being faced with a difficult decision. Although they may paralyse someone temporarily, making it impossible for them to think or act efficiently, such neuroses are not deeply rooted. Character neuroses are characterized by a basic anxiety and a basic hostility resulting from a lack of love and affection in childhood. Sullivan believed that all development can be described exclusively in terms of relationsips with others. Character types as well as neurotic symptoms are explained as results of the struggle against anxiety arising from the individual's relationships with others and act as a security system maintained for the purpose of allaying anxiety. Melanie Klein An important school of thought, known as the English school, is based on the teachings of the British psychoanalyst Melanie Klein. Its influence is very strong throughout Europe and in South America, and its principal theories were derived from observations made in the psychoanalysis of children. Klein posited the existence of complex unconscious fantasies in children under the age of six months. The principal source of anxiety arises from the threat to existence posed by the death instinct. Depending on how concrete representations of destructive forces are dealt with in the unconscious fantasy life of the child, two basic early mental attitudes result that Klein characterized as a “depressive position” and a “paranoid position”. In the paranoid position, the ego's defence consists of projecting the dangerous internal object onto some external representative, which is treated as a genuine threat emanating from the external world. In the depressive position, the threatening object is introjected and treated in fantasy as concretely retained within the person. Symptoms of depression and hypochondriasis result. Although considerable doubt exists that such complex unconscious fantasies operate in the minds of infants, these observations have been of the utmost importance to the psychology and psychiatry of unconscious fantasies, paranoid delusions, and theories dealing with early object relations. Sources Freud Museum (London) - http://www.freud.org.uk/ Freud, Sigmund - Encyclopedia Britannica Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia Britannica Psychoanalysis - Techniques and Practice - http://www.freudfile.org/psychoanalysis/ Psychoanalysis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud - Life and Work - http://www.freudfile.org/ Sigmund Freud - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud The Interpretation of Dreams (3rd edition) by Sigmund Freud (Translated by A. A. Brill (1911)) - http://www.psychwww.com/books/interp/toc.htm Read More